Étiquette : Beaux-Arts

 

The republican struggle of David d’Angers and the statue of Gutenberg in Strasbourg

In the heart of downtown Strasbourg, a stone’s throw from the cathedral and with its back to the 1585 Chamber of Commerce, stands the beautiful bronze statue of the German printer Johannes Gutenberg, holding a barely-printed page from his Bible, which reads: « And there was light » (NOTE 1).

Evoking the emancipation of peoples thanks to the spread of knowledge through the development of printing, the statue, erected in 1840, came at a time when supporters of the Republic were up in arms against the press censorship imposed by Louis-Philippe under the July Monarchy.

Strasbourg, Mainz and China

Plaster model for the statue of Gutenberg, by David d’Angers.

Born around 1400 in Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg, with money lent to him by the merchant and banker Johann Fust, carried out his first experiments with movable metal type in Strasbourg between 1434 and 1445, before perfecting his process in Mainz, notably by printing his famous 42-line Bible from 1452.

On his death (in Mainz) in 1468, Gutenberg bequeathed his process to humanity, enabling printing to take off in Europe. Chroniclers also mention the work of Laurens Janszoon Coster in Harlem, and the Italian printer Panfilo Castaldi, who is said to have brought Chinese know-how to Europe. It should be noted that the « civilized » world of the time refused to acknowledge that printing had originated in Asia with the famous « movable type » (made of porcelain and metal) developed several centuries earlier in China and Korea (NOTE 2).

In Europe, Mainz and Strasbourg vie for pride of place. On August 14, 1837, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the « invention » of printing, Mainz inaugurated its statue of Gutenberg, erected by sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsenalors, while in Strasbourg, a local committee had already commissioned sculptor David d’Angers to create a similar monument in 1835.

This little-known sculptor was both a great sculptor and close friend of Victor Hugo, and a fervent republican in personal contact with the finest humanist elite of his time in France, Germany and the United States. He was also a tireless campaigner for the abolition of the slave trade and slavery.


The sculptor’s life


French sculptor Pierre-Jean David, known as « David d’Angers » (1788-1856) was the son of master sculptor Pierre Louis David. Pierre-Jean was influenced by the republican spirit of his father, who trained him in sculpture from an early age. At the age of twelve, his father enrolled him in the drawing class at the École Centrale de Nantes. In Paris, he was commissioned to create the ornamentation for the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the south facade of the Louvre Palace. Finally, he entered the Beaux-arts.

Portait of David d’Angers, by François-Joseph Heim, Louvre.

David d’Angers possessed a keen sense of interpretation of the human figure and an ability to penetrate the secrets of his models. He excelled in portraiture, whether in bust or medallion form. He is the author of at least sixty-eight statues and statuettes, some fifty bas-reliefs, a hundred busts and over five hundred medallions. Victor Hugo told his friend David: « This is the bronze coin by which you pay your toll to posterity. »

He traveled all over Europe, painting busts in Berlin, London, Dresden and Munich.

Around 1825, when he was commissioned to paint the funeral monument that the Nation was raising by public subscription in honor of General Foy, a tribune of the parliamentary opposition, he underwent an ideological and artistic transformation. He frequented the progressive intellectual circles of the « 1820 generation » and joined the international republican movement. He then turned his attention to the political and social problems of France and Europe. In later years, he remained faithful to his convictions, refusing, for example, the prestigious commission to design Napoleon’s tomb.

Artistic production

Project for a statue of the physician Françis-Xavier Bichat (1771-1802), David d’Angers.

David’s art was thus influenced by a naturalism whose iconography and expression are in stark contrast to that of his academic colleagues and the dissident sculptors known as « romantics » at the time. For David, no mythological sensualism, obscure allegories or historical picturesqueness. On the contrary, sculpture, according to David, must generalize and transpose what the artist observes, so as to ensure the survival of ideas and destinies in a timeless posterity.

David adhered to this particular, limited conception of sculpture, adopting the Enlightenment view that the art of sculpture is « the lasting repository of the virtues of men », perpetuating the memory of the exploits of exceptional beings.

Medallion featuring Alexander von Humboldt, David d’Angers.

The somewhat austere image of « great men » prevailed, best known thanks to some 600 medallions depicting famous men and women from several countries, most of them contemporaries. Added to this are some one hundred busts, mostly of his friends, poets, writers, musicians, songwriters, scientists and politicians with whom he shared the republican ideal.

Among the most enlightened of his time were: Victor Hugo, Marquis de Lafayette, Wolfgang Goethe, Alfred de Vigny, Alphonse Lamartine, Pierre-Jean de Béranger, Alfred de Musset, François Arago, Alexander von Humboldt, Honoré de Balzac, Lady Morgan, James Fenimore Cooper, Armand Carrel, François Chateaubriand, Ennius Quirinus Visconti and Niccolo Paganini.

To magnify his models and visually render the qualities of each one’s genius, David d’Angers invented a mode of idealization no longer based on antique-style classicism, but on a grammar of forms derived from a new science, the phrenology of Doctor Gall, who believed that the cranial « humps » of an individual reflected his intellectual aptitudes and passions. For the sculptor, it was a matter of transcending the model’s physiognomy, so that the greatness of the soul radiated from his forehead.

In 1826, he was elected member of the Institut de France and, the same year, professor at the Beaux-Arts. In 1828, David d’Angers was the victim of his first unsolved assassination attempt. Wounded in the head, he was confined to bed for three months. However, in 1830, still loyal to republican ideas, he took part in the revolutionary days and fought on the barricades.

Pediment of the Panthéon, David d’Angers.


In 1830, David d’Angers found himself ideally placed to carry out the most significant political sculpture commission of the July monarchy and perhaps of 19th century France: the new decoration of the pediment of the church of Sainte-Geneviève, which had been converted into the Pantheon in July.

As a historiographer, he wanted to depict the civilians and men of war who built Republican France. In 1837, the execution of the figures he had chosen and arranged in a sketch that was first approved, then suspended, was bound to lead to conflict with the high clergy and the government. On the left, we see Bichat, Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David, Cuvier, Lafayette, Manuel, Carnot, Berthollet, Laplace, Malesherbes, Mirabeau, Monge and Fénelon. While the government tried to have Lafayette’s effigy removed, which David d’Angers stubbornly refused, with the support of the liberal press, the pediment was unveiled without official ceremony in September 1837, without the presence of the artist, who had not been invited.


Entering politics

During the 1848 Revolution, he was appointed mayor of the 11th arrondissement of Paris, entered the National Constituent Assembly and then the National Legislative Assembly, where he voted with the Montagne (revolutionary left). He defended the existence of the Ecole des Beaux-arts and the Académie de France in Rome. He opposed the destruction of the Chapelle Expiatoire and the removal of two statues from the Arc de Triomphe (Resistance and Peace by sculptor Antoine Etex).

He also voted against the prosecution of Louis Blanc (1811-1882) (another republican statesman and intellectual condemned to exile), against the credits for Napoleon III’s Roman expedition, for the abolition of the death penalty, for the right to work, and for a general amnesty.


Exile

Greek maiden, statue by David d’Angers for the tomb of Greek freedom fighter Markos Botzaris.

He was not re-elected deputy in 1849 and withdrew from political life. In 1851, with the advent of Napoleon III, David d’Angers was arrested and also sentenced to exile. He chose Belgium, then traveled to Greece (his old project). He wanted to revisit his Greek Maiden on the tomb of the Greek republican patriot Markos Botzaris (1788-1823), which he found mutilated and abandoned (he had it repatriated to France and restored).

Disappointed by Greece, he returned to France in 1852. With the help of his friend de Béranger, he was allowed to stay in Paris, where he resumed his work. In September 1855, he suffered a stroke which forced him to cease his activities. He died in January 1856.


Friendships with Lafayette, Abbé Grégoire and Pierre-Jean de Béranger

The Marquis de Lafayette. painted by Adolphe Phalipon after a picture by Ary Scheffer (1795-1858).

David d’Angers was a real link between 18th and 19th century republicans, and a living bridge between those of Europe and America.

Born in 1788, he had the good fortune to associate at an early age with some of the great revolutionary figures of the time, before becoming personally involved in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

Towards the end of the 1820s, David attended the Tuesday salon meetings of Madame de Lafayette, wife of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette (1757-1834).

While General Lafayette stood upright like « a venerable oak », this salon, notes the sculptor,

« has a clear-cut physiognomy, » he writes. The men talk about serious matters, especially politics, and even the young men look serious: there’s something decided, energetic and courageous in their eyes and in their posture (…) All the ladies and also the demoiselles look calm and thoughtful; they look as if they’ve come to see or attend important deliberations, rather than to be seen. »

Irish republican general Arthur O’Connor.

David met Lafayette’s comrade-in-arms, General Arthur O’Connor (1763-1852), a former Irish republican MP of the United Irishmen who had joined Lafayette’s volunteer General Staff in 1792.

Accused of stirring up trouble against the British Empire and in contact with General Lazare Hoche (1768-1797), O’Connor fled to France in 1796 and took part in the Irish Expedition. In 1807, O’Connor married the daughter of philosopher and mathematician Nicolas de Condorcet (1743-1794) and became a naturalized French citizen in 1818.

Republican chansonnier Pierre-Jean de Béranger, bust by David d’Angers.

Lafayette and David d’Angers often got together with a small group of friends, a few « brothers » who were members of Masonic lodges: such as the chansonnier Pierre-Jean de Béranger, François Chateaubriand, Benjamin Constant, Alexandre Dumas (who corresponded with Edgar Allan Poe), Alphonse Lamartine, Henri Beyle dit Stendhal and the painters François Gérard and Horace Vernet.

In these same circles, David also became acquainted with Henri (Abbé) Grégoire (1750-1831), and the issue of the abolition of slavery, which Grégoire had pushed through on February 4, 1794, was often raised. In their exchanges, Lafayette liked to recall the words of his youthful friend Nicolas de Condorcet:

« Slavery is a horrible barbarism, if we can only eat sugar at this price, we must know how to renounce a commodity stained with the blood of our brothers. »


For Abbé Gregoire, the problem went much deeper:

« As long as men are thirsty for blood, or rather, as long as most governments have no morals, as long as politics is the art of deceit, as long as people, unaware of their true interests, attach silly importance to the job of spadassin, and will allow themselves to be led blindly to the slaughter with sheep-like resignation, almost always to serve as a pedestal for vanity, almost never to avenge the rights of humanity, and to take a step towards happiness and virtue, the most flourishing nation will be the one that has the greatest facility for slitting the throats of others. »

(Essay on the physical, moral and political regeneration of the Jews)

Napoleon and slavery

The first abolition of slavery was, alas, short-lived. In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte, short of the money needed to finance his wars, reintroduced slavery, and nine days later excluded colored officers from the French army.

Finally, he outlawed marriages between « fiancés whose skin color is different ». David d’Angers remained very sensitive to this issue, having as a comrade a very young writer, Alexandre Dumas, whose father had been born a slave in Haiti.

As early as 1781, under the pseudonym Schwarz (black in German), Condorcet had published a manifesto advocating the gradual disappearance of slavery over a period of 60 to 70 years, a view quickly shared by Lafayette. A fervent supporter of the abolitionist cause, Condorcet condemned slavery as a crime, but also denounced its economic uselessness: slave labor, with its low productivity, was an obstacle to the establishment of a market economy.

And even before the signing of the peace treaty between France and the United States, Lafayette wrote to his friend George Washington on February 3, 1783, proposing to join him in setting in motion a process of gradual emancipation of the slaves. He suggested a plan that would « frankly become beneficial to the black portion of mankind ».

The idea was to buy a small state in which to experiment with freeing slaves and putting them to work as farmers. Such an example, he explained, « could become a school and thus a general practice ». (NOTE 3)

Washington replied that he personally would have liked to support such a step, but that the American Congress (already) was totally hostile.

From the Society of Black Friends to the French Society for the Abolition of Slavery

Abbé Henri Grégoire, bust by David d’Angers.

In Paris, on February 19, 1788, Abbé Grégoire and Jacques Pierre Brissot (1754-1793) founded « La Société des amis des Noirs », whose rules were drawn up by Condorcet, and of which the Lafayette couple were also members.

The society’s aim was the equality of free whites and blacks in the colonies, the immediate prohibition of the black slave trade and the gradual abolition of slavery; on the one hand, to maintain the economy of the French colonies, and on the other, in the belief that before blacks could achieve freedom, they had to be prepared for it, and therefore educated.

After the virtual disappearance of the « Amis des Noirs », the offensive was renewed, with the founding in 1821 of the « Société de la Morale chrétienne », which in 1822 set up a « Comité pour l’abolition de la traite des Noirs », some of whose members went on to found the « Société française pour l’abolition de l’esclavage (SFAE) » in 1834.

Initially in favor of gradual abolition, the SFAE later favored immediate abolition. Prohibited from holding meetings, the SFAE decided to create abolitionist committees throughout the country to relay the desire to put an end to slavery, both locally and nationally.

Goethe and Schiller

Victor Pavie.

In the summer of 1829, David d’Angers made his first trip to Germany and met Goethe (1749-1832), the poet and philosopher who had retired to Weimar. Several posing sessions enabled the sculptor to complete his portrait.

Writer and poet Victor Pavie (1808-1886), a friend of Victor Hugo and one of the founders of the « Cercles catholiques ouvriers » (Catholic Workers Circle), accompagnied him on the trip and recounts some of the pictoresques anecdotes of their travel in his « Goethe and David, memories of a voyage to Weimar » (1874).

In 1827, the French newspaper Globe published two letters recounting two visits to Goethe, in 1817 and 1825, by an anonymous « friend » (Victor Cousin), as well as a letter from Ampère on his return from the « Athens of Germany ». In these letters, the young scientist expressed his admiration, and gave numerous details that whetted the interest of his compatriots. During his stay in Weimar, Ampère added to his host’s knowledge of Romantic authors, particularly Mérimée, Vigny, Deschamps and Delphine Gay. Goethe already had a (positive) opinion of Victor Hugo, Lamartine and Casimir Delavigne, and of all they owed to Chateaubriand.

A subscriber to the Globe since its foundation in 1824, Goethe had at his disposal a marvellous instrument of French information. In any case, he had little left to learn about France when David and Pavie visited him in August 1829. On the strength of his unhappy experience with Walter Scott in London, David d’Angers had taken precautions this time, and had a number of letters of recommendation for the people of Weimar, as well as two letters of introduction to Goethe, signed by Abbé Grégoire and Victor Cousin. To show the illustrious writer what he could do, he had placed some of his finest medallions in a crate.

Once in Weimar, David d’Angers and Victor Pavie encountered great difficulties in their quest, especially as the recipients of the letters of recommendation were all absent. Stricken with despair and fearing failure, David blamed his young friend Victor Pavie:

Friedrich Schiller, David d’Angers medallion.

« Yes, you jumped in with the optimism of a young man, without giving me time to think and get out of the way. It wasn’t as a coward or under the patronage of an adventurer, it was head-on and resolutely that we had to tackle the character. (…) You’re only as good as what you are, it’s a yes or no question. You know me, on my knees before genius, and imployable before power. Ah! court poets, great or small, everywhere the same!

(…) And with a leap from the chair where he had insensitively let himself fall: Where’s Schiller? I’d like to kiss him! His grave, where I will strike, will not remain sealed for me; I will take him there, and bring him back glorious. What does it matter? Have I seen Corneille, have I seen Racine? The bust I’m planning for him will look all the better for it; the flash of his genius will gleam on his forehead. I’ll make him as I love and admire him, not with the pinched nose that Dannecker (image below) gave him, but with nostrils swollen with patriotism and freedom.

Victor Pavie’s account reveals the republican fervor animating the sculptor who, faithful to the ideals of Abbé Grégoire, was already thinking about the great anti-slavery sculpture he planned to create:

« At that moment, the half-open window of our bedroom, yielding to the evening breeze, opened wide. The sky was superb; the Milky Way unfurled with such brilliance that one could have counted the stars. He (David) remained silent for some time, dazzled; then, with that suddenness of impression that incessantly renewed the realm of feelings and ideas around him:
‘What a work, what a masterpiece! How poor we are compared to this!Would all your geniuses in one, writers, artists, poets, ever reach this incomparable poem whose tasks are splendors? Yet God knows your insatiable pretensions; we flay you in praise… And light! Remember this (and his presentiments in this regard were nothing less than a chimera), that such a one as received a marble bust from me as a token of my admiration, will one day literally lose the memory of it. – No, there is nothing more noble and great in humanity than that which suffers. I still have in my head, or rather in my heart, this protest of the human conscience against the most execrable iniquity of our times, the slave trade: after ten years of silence and suffering, it must burst forth with the voice of brass. You can see the group from here: the garroted slave, his eye on the sky, protector and avenger of the weak; next to him, lying broken, his wife, in whose bosom a frail creature is sucking blood instead of milk; at their feet, detached from the negro’s broken collar, the crucifix, the Man-God who died for his brothers, black or white. Yes, the monument will be made of bronze, and when the wind blows, you will hear the chain beating, and the rings ringing' ».

Finally, Goethe met the two Frenchmen, and David d’Angers succeeded in making his bust of the German poet. Victor Pavie:

« Goethe bowed politely to us, spoke the French language with ease from the start, and made us sit down with that calm, resigned air that astonished me, as if it were a simple thing to find oneself standing at eighty, face to face with a third generation, to which he had passed on through the second, like a living tradition.

(…) David carried with him, as the saying goes, a sample of his skills.He presented the old man with a few of his lively profiles, so morally expressive, so nervously and intimately executed, part of a great whole that is becoming more complete with our age, and which reserves for the centuries to come the monumental physiognomy of the 19th century. Goethe took them in his hand, considered them mute, with scrupulous attention, as if to extract some hidden harmony, and let out a muffled, equivocal exclamation that I later recognized as a mark of genuine satisfaction.Then, by a more intelligible and flattering transition, of which he was perhaps unaware, walking to his library, he charmingly showed us a rich collection of medals from the Middle Ages, rare and precious relics of an art that could be said to have been lost, and of which our great sculptor David has nowadays been able to recover and re-immerse the secret.

(…) The bust project did not have to languish for long: the very next day, one of the apartments in the poet’s immense house was transformed into a workshop, and a shapeless mound lay on the parquet floor, awaiting the first breath of existence. As soon as it slowly shifted into a human form, Goethe’s hitherto calm and impassive figure moved with it. Gradually, as if a secret, sympathetic alliance had developed between portrait and model, as the one moved towards life, the other blossomed into confidence and abandonment: we soon came to those artist’s confidences, that confluence of poetry, where the ideas of the poet and the sculptor come together in a common mold. He would come and go, prowling around this growing mass, (to use a trivial comparison) with the anxious solicitude of a landowner building a house. He asked us many questions about France, whose progress he was following with a youthful and active curiosity; and frolicking at leisure about modern literature, he reviewed Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Nodier, Alfred de Vigny, Victor Hugo, whose manner he had seriously pondered in Cromwell.

(…) David’s bust, writes Pavie, was as beautiful as Chateaubriand’s, Lamartine’s, Cooper’s, as any application of genius to genius, as the work of a chisel fit and powerful to reproduce one of those types created expressly by nature for the habitation of a great thought. Of all the likenesses attempted, with greater or lesser success, in all the ages of this long glory, from his youth of twenty to Rauch’s bust, the last and best understood of all, it is no prevention to say that David’s is the best, or, to put it even more bluntly, the only realization of that ideal likeness which is not the thing, but is more than the thing, nature taken within and turned inside out, the outward manifestation of a divine intelligence passed into human bark. And there are few occasions like this one, when colossal execution seems no more than a powerless indication of real effect. An immense forehead, on which rises, like clouds, a thick tuft of silver hair; a downward gaze, hollow and motionless, a look of Olympian Jupiter; a nose of broad proportion and antique style, in the line of the forehead ; then that singular mouth we were talking about earlier, with the lower lip a little forward, that mouth, all examination, questioning and finesse, completing the top with the bottom, genius with reason; with no other pedestal than its muscular neck, this head leans as if veiled, towards the earth:it’s the hour when the setting genius lowers his gaze to this world, which he still lights with a farewell ray. Such is David’s crude description of Goethe’s statue.- What a pity that in his bust of Schiller, so famous and so praised, the sculptor Dannecker prepared such a miserable counterpart!

When Goethe received his bust, he warmly thanked David for the exchange of letters, books and medallions… but made no mention of the bust ! For one simple reason: he didn’t recognize himself at all in the work, which he didn’t even keep at home… The German poet was depicted with an oversized forehead, to reflect his great intelligence. And his tousled hair symbolized the torments of his soul…

David d’Angers and Hippolyte Carnot

Hippolyte Carnot, son of Lazare Carnot, painted by Jules Laure, 1837.

Among the founders of the SFAE (see earlier chapter on Abbé Grégoire) was Hippolyte Carnot (1801-1888), younger brother of Nicolas Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), pioneer of thermodynamics and son of « the organizer of victory », the military and scientific genius Lazare Carnot (1753-1823), whose work and struggle he recounted in his 1869 biography Mémoires sur Lazare Carnot 1753-1823 by his son Hippolyte.

In 1888, with the title Henri Grégoire, évêque (bishop) républicain, Hippolyte published the Mémoires of Grégoire the defender of all the oppressed of the time (negroes and Jews alike), a great friend of his father’s who had retained this friendship.

For the former bishop of Blois, « we must enlighten the ignorance that does not know and the poverty that does not have the means to know. »

Grégoire had been one of the Convention’s great « educators », and it was on his report that the Conservatoire des Arts-et-Métiers was founded on September 29, 1794, notably for the instruction of craftsmen. Grégoire also contributed to the creation of the Bureau des Longitudes on June 25, 1795 and the Institut de France on October 25, 1795.

Bust of Rouget de Lisle, David d’Angers.

Hippolyte Carnot and David d’Angers, who were friends, co-authored the Memoirs of Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac (1755-1841), who acted as a sort of Minister of Information on the Comité de Salut Public, responsible for announcing the victories of the Republican armies to the Convention as soon as they arrived.

It was also Abbé Grégoire who, in 1826, commissioned David d’Angers, with the help of his friend Béranger, to bring some material and financial comfort to Rouget de Lisle (1860-1836), the legendary author of La Marseillaise, composed in Strasbourg when, in his old age, the composer was languishing in prison for debt.

Overcoming the sectarianism of their time, here are three fervent republicans full of compassion and gratitude for a musical genius who never wanted to renounce his royalist convictions, but whose patriotic creation would become the national anthem of the young French Republic.


Provisional Government
of the Second Republic

Hippolyte Carnot.

All these battles, initiatives and mobilizations culminated in 1848, when, for two months and 15 days (from February 24 to May 9), a handful of genuine republicans became part of the « provisional government » of the Second Republic.

In such a short space of time, so many good measures were taken or launched! Hippolyte Carnot was the Minister of Public Instruction, determined to create a high level of education for all, including women, following the models set by his father for Polytechnique and Grégoire for Arts et Métiers.

Article 13 of the 1848 Constitution « guarantees citizens (…) free primary education ».

On June 30, 1848, the Minister of Public Instruction, Lazare Hippolyte Carnot, submitted a bill to the Assembly that fully anticipated the Ferry laws, by providing for compulsory elementary education for both sexes, free and secular, while guaranteeing freedom of teaching. It also provided for three years’ free training at a teacher training college, in return for an obligation to teach for at least ten years, a system that was to remain in force for a long time. He proposed a clear improvement in their salaries. He also urged teachers « to teach a republican catechism ».

A member of the provisional government, the great astronomer and scientist François Arago (1886-1853) was Minister for the Colonies, having been appointed by Gaspard Monge to succeed him at the Ecole Polytechnique, where he taught projective geometry. His closest friend was none other than Alexander von Humboldt, friend of Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Friedrich Schiller.

Bust by David d’Angers signed « To his honorable friend François Arago ».


He was another abolitionist activist who spent much of his adult life in Paris. Humboldt was a member of the Société d’Arcueil, formed around the chemist Claude-Louis Berthollet, where he also met, besides François Arago, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac, with whom Humboldt became friends. They published several scientific articles together.

Humboldt and Gay-Lussac conducted joint experiments on the composition of the atmosphere, terrestrial magnetism and light diffraction, research that would later bear fruit for the great Louis Pasteur.

Napoleon, who initially wanted to expel Humboldt, eventually tolerated his presence. The Paris Geographical Society, founded in 1821, chose him as its president.


Humboldt, Arago, Schoelcher, David d’Angers and Hugo

Victor Schoelcher and the 1848 decree abolishing slavery in the French colonies.


Humboldt made no secret of his republican ideals. His Political Essay on the Island of Cuba (1825) was a bombshell. Too hostile to slavery practices, the work was banned from publication in Spain. London went so far as to refuse him access to its Empire.

Even more deplorably, John S. Trasher, who published an English-language version in 1856, removed the chapter devoted to slaves and the slave trade altogether! Humboldt protested vigorously against this politically motivated mutilation. Trasher was a slaveholder, and his redacted translation was intended to counter the arguments of North American abolitionists, who subsequently published the retracted chapter in the New York Herald and the US Courrier. Victor Schoelcher and the decree abolishing slavery in the French colonies.

In France, under Arago, the Under-Secretary of State for the Navy and the Colonies was Victor Schoelcher. He didn’t need much convincing to convince the astronomer that all the planets were aligned for him to act.

A Freemason, Schoelcher was a brother of David d’Angers’s lodge, « Les amis de la Vérité » (The Friends of Truth), also known as the Cercle social, in reality « a mixture of revolutionary political club, Masonic lodge and literary salon ».

On March 4, a commission was set up to resolve the problem of slavery in the French colonies. It was chaired by Victor de Broglie, president of the SFAE, to which five of the commission’s twelve members belonged. Thanks to the efforts of François Arago, Henri Wallon and above all Victor Schoelcher, its work led to the abolition of slavery on April 27.


Victor Hugo the abolitionist

Victor Hugo, bust by David d’Angers.



Victor Hugo was one of the advocates of the abolition of slavery in France, but also of equality between what were still referred to as « the races » in the 19th century. « The white republic and the black republic are sisters, just as the black man and the white man are brothers », Hugo asserted as early as 1859. For him, as all men were creations of God, brotherhood was the order of the day.

When Maria Chapman, an anti-slavery campaigner, wrote to Hugo on April 27, 1851, asking him to support the abolitionist cause, Hugo replied: « Slavery in the United States! » he exclaimed on May 12, « is there any more monstrous misinterpretation? » How could a republic with such a fine constitution preserve such a barbaric practice?

Eight years later, on December 2, 1859, he wrote an open letter to the United States of America, published by the free newspapers of Europe, in defense of the abolitionist John Brown, condemned to death.

Starting from the fact that « there are slaves in the Southern states, which indignifies, like the most monstrous counter-sense, the logical and pure conscience of the Northern states », he recounts Brown’s struggle, his trial and his announced execution, and concludes: « there is something more frightening than Cain killing Abel, it is Washington killing Spartacus ».

A journalist from Port-au-Prince, Exilien Heurtelou, thanked him on February 4, 1860. Hugo replied on March 31:

« Hauteville-House, March 31, 1860.

You are, sir, a noble sample of this black humanity so long oppressed and misunderstood.

From one end of the earth to the other, the same flame is in man; and blacks like you prove it. Was there more than one Adam? Naturalists can debate the question, but what is certain is that there is only one God.

Since there is only one Father, we are brothers.
It is for this truth that John Brown died; it is for this truth that I fight. You thank me for this, and I can’t tell you how much your beautiful words touch me.

There are neither whites nor blacks on earth, there are spirits; you are one of them. Before God, all souls are white.

I love your country, your race, your freedom, your revolution, your republic. Your magnificent, gentle island pleases free souls at this hour; it has just set a great example; it has broken despotism. It will help us break slavery. »



Also in 1860, the American Abolitionist Society, mobilized behind Lincoln, published a collection of speeches. The booklet opens with three texts by Hugo, followed by those by Carnot, Humboldt and Lafayette.

On May 18, 1879, Hugo agreed to preside over a commemoration of the abolition of slavery in the presence of Victor Schoelcher, principal author of the 1848 emancipation decree, who hailed Hugo as « the powerful defender of all the underprivileged, all the weak, all the oppressed of this world » and declared:

« The cause of the Negroes whom we support, and towards whom the Christian nations have so much to reproach, must have had your sympathy; we are grateful to you for attesting to it by your presence in our midst. »


A start for the better

Another measure taken by the provisional government of this short-lived Second Republic was the abolition of the death penalty in the political sphere, and the abolition of corporal punishment on March 12, as well as imprisonment for debt on March 19.

In the political sphere, freedom of the press and freedom of assembly were proclaimed on March 4. On March 5, the government instituted universal male suffrage, replacing the censal suffrage in force since 1815. At a stroke, the electorate grew from 250,000 to 9 million. This democratic measure placed the rural world, home to three quarters of the population, at the heart of political life for many decades to come. This mass of new voters, lacking any real civic training, saw in him a protector, and voted en masse for Napoleon III in 1851, 1860 and 1870.


Victor Hugo

Second bust of Victor Hugo, by David d’Angers.

To return to David d’Angers, a lasting friendship united him with Victor Hugo (1802-1885). Recently married, Hugo and David would meet to draw. The poet and the sculptor enjoyed drawing together, making caricatures, painting landscapes or « architectures » that inspired them.

A shared ideal united them, and with the arrival of Napoleon III, both men went into political exile.

Out of friendship, David d’Angers made several busts of his friend. Hugo is shown wearing an elegant contemporary suit.

His broad forehead and slightly frowning eyebrows express the poet’s greatness, yet to come. Refraining from detailing the pupils, David lends this gaze an inward, pensive dimension that prompted Hugo to write: « my friend, you are sending me immortality. »

In 1842, David d’Angers produced another bust of Victor Hugo, crowned with laurel, where this time it was not Hugo the close friend who was evoked, but rather the genius and great man.

Finally, for Hugo’s funeral in 1885, the Republic of Haiti wished to show its gratitude to the poet by sending a delegation to represent it. Emmanuel-Edouard, a Haitian writer, presided over the delegation, and made the following statement at the Pantheon:

The Republic of Haiti has the right to speak on behalf of the black race; the black race, through me, thanks Victor Hugo for having loved and honored it so much, for having strengthened and comforted it.


The four bas-reliefs
of the Gutenberg statue

Tour of the Gutenberg statue in Strasbourg by the author, July 8, 2023.


Once the reader has identified this « great arch » that runs through history, and the ideas and convictions that inspired David d’Angers, he will grasp the beautiful unity underlying the four bas-reliefs on the base of the statue commemorating Gutenberg in Strasbourg.


What stands out is the very optimistic idea that the human race, in all its great and magnificent diversity, is one and fraternal. Once freed from all forms of oppression (ignorance, slavery, etc.), they can live together in peace and harmony.

These bronze bas-reliefs were added in 1844. After bitter debate and contestation, they replaced the original 1840 painted plaster models affixed at the inauguration. They represent the benefits of printing in America, Africa, Asia and Europe. At the center of each relief is a printing press surrounded by characters identified by inscriptions, as well as schoolteachers, teachers and children.

To conclude, here’s an extract from the inauguration report describing the bas-reliefs. Without falling into wokism (for whom any idea of a « great man » is necessarily to be fought), let’s point out that it is written in the terms of the time and therefore open to discussion:

Dissemination of ideas in Europe thanks to the printing press.
Plaster model for the base of the statue of Gutenberg, David d’Angers.

« Europe
is represented by a bas-relief featuring René Descartes in a meditative attitude, beneath Francis Bacon and Herman Boerhaave. On the left are William Shakespeare, Pierre Corneille, Molière and Racine. One row below, Voltaire, Buffon, Albrecht Dürer, John Milton and Cimarosa, Poussin, Calderone, Camoëns and Puget. On the right, Martin Luther, Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz, Immanuel Kant, Copernicus, Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Hegel, Richter, Klopstock. Rejected on the side are Linné and Ambroise Parée. Near the press, above the figure of Martin Luther, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Rousseau and Lessing. Below the tier, Volta, Galileo, Isaac Newton, James Watt, Denis Papin and Raphaël. A small group of children study, including one African and one Asian.« 

Ideas spread to Asia thanks to the printing press.
Plaster model for the base of the statue of Gutenberg, David d’Angers.

« Asia.
A printing press is shown again, with William Jones and Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron offering books to Brahmins, who give them manuscripts in return. Near Jones, Sultan Mahmoud II is reading the Monitor in modern clothes, his old turban lies at his feet, and nearby a Turk is reading a book. One step below, a Chinese emperor surrounded by a Persian and a Chinese man is reading the Book of Confucius. A European instructs children, while a group of Indian women stand by an idol and the Indian philosopher Rammonhun-Roy.« 

Ideas spread to Africa thanks to the printing press. Plaster model for the base of the statue of Gutenberg, David d’Angers.

« Africa.
Leaning on a press, William Wilberforce hugs an African holding a book, while Europeans distribute books to other Africans and are busy teaching children. On the right, Thomas Clarkson can be seen breaking the shackles of a slave. Behind him, Abbé Grégoire helps a black man to his feet and holds his hand over his heart. A group of women raise their recovered children to the sky, which will now see only free men, while on the ground lie broken whips and irons. This is the end of slavery.« 

Ideas spread in America thanks to the printing press. Plaster model for the base of the statue of Gutenberg, David d’Angers.

« America.
The Act of Independence of the United States, fresh from the press, is in the hands of Benjamin Franklin. Next to him stand Washington and Lafayette, who holds the sword given to him by his adopted homeland to his chest. Jefferson and all the signatories of the Act of Independence are assembled. On the right, Bolivar shakes hands with an Indian. »


America

1884, Statue of Liberty construction site, rue de Chazelles, Paris 17th arrondissement.

We can better understand the words spoken by Victor Hugo on November 29, 1884, shortly before his death, during his visit to the workshop of sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, where the poet was invited to admire the giant statue bearing the symbolic name « Liberty Enlightening the World », built with the help of Gustave Eiffel and ready to leave for the United States by ship. A gift from France to America, it will commemorate the active part played by Lafayette’s country in the Revolutionary War.

Initially, Hugo was most interested in American heroes and statesmen: William Penn, Benjamin Franklin, John Brown and Abraham Lincoln. Role models, according to Hugo, who enabled the people to progress. For the French politician who became a Republican in 1847, America was the example to follow. Even if he was very disappointed by the American position on the death penalty and slavery.

After 1830, the writer abandoned this somewhat idyllic vision of the New World and attacked the white « civilizers » who hunted down Indians:

« You think you civilize a world, when you inflame it with some foul fever [4], when you disturb its lakes, mirrors of a secret god, when you rape its virgin, the forest. When you drive out of the wood, out of the den, out of the shore, your naive and dark brother, the savage… And when throwing out this useless Adam, you populate the desert with a man more reptilian… Idolater of the dollar god, madman who palpitates, no longer for a sun, but for a nugget, who calls himself free and shows the appalled world the astonished slavery serving freedom!« 

(NOTE 5)


Overcoming his fatigue, in front of the Statue of Liberty, Hugo improvised what he knew would be his last speech:

« This beautiful work tends towards what I have always loved, called: peace between America and France – France which is Europe – This pledge of peace will remain permanent. It was good that it was done!« 

NOTES:


1. If the phrase appears in the Book of Genesis, it could also refer to Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) a novel by Victor Hugo, a great friend of the statue’s sculptor, David d’Angers. We know from a letter Hugo wrote in August 1832 that the poet brought David d’Angers the eighth edition of the book. The scene most directly embodied in the statue is the one in which the character of Frollo converses with two scholars (one being Louis XI in disguise) while pointing with one finger to a book and with the other to the cathedral, remarking: « Ceci tuera cela » (This will kill that), i.e. that one power (the printed press), democracy, will supplant the other (the Church), theocracy, a historical evolution Hugo thought ineluctable.
2. It was the encounter with Asia that brought countless technical know-how and scientific discoveries from the East to Europe, the best-known being the compass and gunpowder. Just as essential to printing as movable type was paper, the manufacture of which was perfected in China at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (around the year 185). As for printing, the oldest printed book we have to date is the Diamond Sutra, a Chinese Buddhist scripture dating from 868. Finally, it was in the mid-11th century, under the Song dynasty, that Bi Sheng (990-1051) invented movable type. Engraved in porcelain, a viscous clay ceramic, hardened in fire and assembled in resin, they revolutionized printing. As documented by the Gutenberg Museum in Mainz, it was the Korean Choe Yun-ui (1102-1162) who improved this technique in the 12th century by using metal (less fragile), a process later adopted by Gutenberg and his associates. The Anthology of Zen Teachings of Buddhist High Priests (1377), also known as the Jikji, was printed in Korea 78 years before the Gutenberg Bible, and is recognized as the world’s oldest book with movable metal type.
3. Etienne Taillemite, Lafayette and the abolition of slavery.
4. Victor Hugo undoubtedly wanted to rebound on the news that reached him from America. The Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic of 1862, which was brought from San Francisco to Victoria, devastated the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest coast, with a mortality rate of over 50% along the entire coast from Puget Sound to southeast Alaska. Some historians have described the epidemic as a deliberate genocide, as the colony of Vancouver Island and the colony of British Columbia could have prevented it, but chose not to, and in a way facilitated it.
5. Victor Hugo, La civilisation from Toute la lyre (1888 and 1893).

Merci de partager !

L’ange Bruegel et la chute du cardinal Granvelle

La chute des anges rebelles, tableau de Pieter Bruegel l’ancien (1562).

A propos du livre de Tine Luk Meganck, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Fall of the rebel angels, Art, Politics and Knowledge at the eve of the Dutch Revolt, (Pierre Bruegel l’Ancien, La chute des anges rebelles, art, savoirs et politique à la veille de la révolte des Pays-Bas) (2014, Editions Silvana Editoriale, Collection des Cahiers des Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique).


Ayant pu régulièrement admirer ce tableau à ce qui s’appelait encore le Musée royal d’Art ancien lors de ma formation à l’Institut Saint-Luc de Bruxelles, la Chute des anges rebelles de Pieter Bruegel l’Ancien méritait bien qu’on lui consacre un jour une recherche approfondie.

C’est désormais chose faite avec l’étude de Tine Luk Meganck, docteur en histoire de l’art diplômée par l’Université de Princeton et chercheure attachée au Musée de Bruxelles, dont les recherches furent publiées en anglais en 2014 dans la Collection des Cahiers des Musées Royaux des Beaux Arts de Belgique.

Si ce livre, qu’il faut saluer, en rappelant aussi bien le milieu culturel que la situation politique exerçant une influence sur la démarche du peintre, permet de mieux « lire » l’œuvre paradoxale du peintre flamand, l’étude, en évitant certains détails précieux tout en faisant des gros plans sur d’autres, nous laisse sur notre faim quant à l’essentiel.

Pire, à force d’étoffer ce qui ne reste que des simples hypothèses, Mme Meganck a bien du mal à résister à la tentation de vouloir nous faire partager d’office des conclusions qui n’ont pas lieu d’être mais qui lui permettraient de conforter une hypothèse déjà ancienne disant que le cardinal Granvelle, figure plus qu’ambigu du pouvoir impérial espagnol, aurait pu être un des commanditaires de Bruegel. Avant de répondre à cette question, revenons au tableau.

La Chute des anges rebelles, vaste tableau (117 x 162) peint sur bois de chêne par Pieter Bruegel l’Ancien en 1562, reprend une vieille thématique chrétienne qui cherche à répondre aux interrogations des croyants :

Si Dieu était le créateur de tout ce qui existe, a-t-il également créé le mal ?

La chute des anges rebelles, miniature d’un maître anonyme, Livre des bonnes mœurs de Jacques Legrand, Bourgogne, XVe siècle. (Crédit : BNF)

Bien avant la Théodicée du philosophe allemand Leibniz (1646-1716) qui répond en profondeur à cette question, Augustin d’Hippone (354-430), en rompant avec le manichéisme pour qui l’histoire n’était qu’une lutte incessante entre le « bien » et le « mal », souligne que le mal n’a aucune légitimité et n’est que simple « absence » du bien. En clair, si l’homme fait le choix de faire le bien, le mal, sans vecteur de propagation, est obligé de battre en retrait.

Une autre allégorie fut ajoutée pour expliquer l’origine du mal, celle de l’ange déchu. Le poète anglais John Milton (1608-1674), dans son célèbre Paradis perdu (1667) ainsi que le poète néerlandais Joost Van den Vondel (1587-1679), dans son Lucifer (1654) brodent sur ce thème. Lorsque Dieu créa l’homme à son image, avancent-ils, les anges qui l’entouraient, succombaient à la jalousie. Le Seigneur les chargea d’observer le comportement des hommes qu’il avait créé à son image. Constatant la beauté et l’harmonie de l’existence humaine, les anges furent pris de panique : avec des humains si près et tant aimés de Dieu, qu’allons-nous devenir ?

L’évêque Irénée de Lyon (130-202), affirma que l’ange

à cause de la jalousie et de l’envie qu’il éprouvait à l’égard de l’homme pour les nombreux dons que Dieu lui avait accordés, fit de l’homme un pécheur en le persuadant de désobéir au commandement de Dieu, provoqua sa ruine.

Découvrant la déchéance de certains anges, Dieu ordonna leur expulsion.

Plusieurs prophètes annoncent, après une guerre féroce, le triomphe de l’archange Michel et de sa milice céleste d’anges sur Lucifer, prince des lumières. Ce n’est plus une lutte éternelle mais la victoire du bien et de Dieu sur le mal annonçant le Royaume de Dieu dans l’univers.

D’après le livre de l’Apocalypse de l’apôtre Jean (chapitre 12, verset 7-9),

Il y eut guerre dans le ciel : Michel et ses anges sont allés à la guerre avec le dragon. Et le dragon et ses anges. Et il a réussi, ni était un endroit pour eux dans le ciel. Et le grand dragon fut précipité, le serpent ancien, appelé le diable et Satan, qui trompe le monde entier, a été jeté à la terre, et ses anges furent précipités avec lui.

Depuis Origène (185-253), la chute de l’ange provient du péché d’orgueil. Reprenant le Livre d’Isaïe (versets 12 à 14), Origène affirme :

Comment Lucifer est-il tombé du ciel, lui qui se levait le matin ? Il s’est brisé et abattu sur la terre, lui qui s’en prenait à toutes les nations. Mais toi, tu as dit dans ton esprit : Je monterai au ciel, sur les étoiles du ciel je poserai mon trône, je siégerai sur le mont élevé au-dessus des monts élevés qui sont vers l’Aquilon. Je monterai au-dessus des nuées, je serai semblable au Très Haut. Or maintenant tu as plongé dans la région d’en bas et dans les fondements de la terre.

Aux Quatre Vents

La chute des anges rebelles de Frans Floris, 1554.


Bruegel va y ajouter son imagination et la philosophie érasmienne qu’il a rencontré en travaillant à Anvers dans l’atelier Aux Quatre Vents du graveur Jérôme Cock, fils de Jan Wellens Cock, un disciple de Jérôme Bosch.

Dans cet atelier, il a pu croiser le graveur néerlandais Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert (1522-1590), formé par le jeune secrétaire d’Erasme, Quirin Talesius (1505-1575), lui-même traducteur d’Erasme en néerlandais et futur secrétaire d’Etat du prince d’Orange, Guillaume le Taciturne (1533-1585) le grand dirigeant humaniste qui souleva les Pays-Bas contre l’Empire espagnol.

Dirck Volkertszoon Coornhert, portrait de Maarten Van Heemskerk.

Coornhert s’occupe de graver l’œuvre du peintre Maarten van Heemskerk et de Frans Floris, lui aussi l’auteur en 1554 (donc huit ans avant Bruegel) d’un tableau sur le thème de la Chute des anges rebelles. En 1560, lorsque Coornhert devient éditeur, son élève s’appelle Philippe Galle qui grava plusieurs dessins de Bruegel pour l’éditeur Jérôme Cock.

Pour l’atelier de Cock, Bruegel élabora deux séries de gravures : les « Sept péchés capitaux » et les « Sept vertus ».

Comme le note Mme Meganck, Bruegel, renouant avec une vieille tradition qui date du moyen-âge, place à coté de chaque péché un animal symbolisant le coté bestial de la chose : à coté de la rage, un ours ; à coté de la paresse, un âne ; à coté de l’orgueil, un paon ; à coté de l’avarice, un crapaud ; à coté de la gourmandise, un sanglier ; à coté de la jalousie, une dinde et enfin, à coté de la luxure, un coq.

La Fortitude, gravure au burin de la série Les Sept Vertus, réalisée par Jérôme Cock d’après un dessin de Bruegel l’ancien. La légende dit : « Vaincre ses impulsions, pour retenir sa rage ainsi que d’autres vices et émotions, voila ce qui est la vraie fortitude (force) ».

Déjà, dans sa gravure la Fortitude qui fait partie des Sept vertus et qui anticipe d’une certaine façon la Chute des anges rebelles, Bruegel montre une armée d’hommes tabassant un ours (la rage), tuant le sanglier (la gourmandise), égorgeant le paon (l’orgueil), frappant le crapaud (l’avarice), etc. Sous la gravure on peut lire en latin :

Vaincre ses impulsions, pour retenir sa rage ainsi que d’autres vices et émotions, voila ce qui est la vraie fortitude (force).

Or, chez Bruegel, les anges rebelles, dans leur chute, ne se transforment pas en démons à cornes mais en oiseaux plumés, en crapauds, en singes et autres cochons sauvages —qui font tous plus rire que trembler— ratiboisés par des anges restés fidèles et annonçant, à coup de buisines, leur triomphe.

Homme au turban, de Jan Van Eyck, 1433.

Et lorsque Mme Meganck affirme sans hésitation qu’un des cochons avec un bonnet rouge est une référence au peintre et diplomate humaniste flamand Jan Van Eyck, pour la raison toute simple qu’il était connu pour avoir porté un turban rouge, je ne sais plus s’il faut rire ou pleurer…

Il n’existe d’ailleurs aucune preuve formelle permettant de conclure que le portrait d’un homme avec un turban rouge, peint sans doute par Van Eyck en 1433 est un autoportrait.

En tout cas, pour le courant humaniste augustinien que nous évoquions, le mal n’est pas systématiquement quelque chose d’extérieur à l’homme mais également une chose à surmonter par chaque homme en lui-même en faisant le choix du bien. Rappelons que déjà, dans le polyptyque du Jugement dernier de Roger Van Der Weyden à l’Hospice de Beaune, ce n’est nullement le diable qui tire l’homme en enfer, mais d’autres hommes et femmes !

Ce qui est incontestable, c’est que lorsque Bruegel peint La chute des anges rebelles, il vise directement l’orgueil de ceux qui « se prennent pour Dieu » ou se croient même au-dessus de lui.

Reste alors à savoir à qui il s’adresse ? Pense-t-il comme le cardinal Granvelle aux Luthériens contestant l’autorité de l’Eglise de Rome ? Ou pense-t-il aux Catholiques espagnols dont l’absolutisme répressif et orgueilleux en défense de leur pouvoir terrestre, allait totalement à l’encontre de la vraie « philosophie du Christ » telle qu’elle fut défendue par Guillaume le Taciturne, lecteur d’Erasme et de Rabelais ?

C’est là, où notre analyse diffère radicalement de celle de Mme Meganck.

Le palais du Coudenberg à Bruxelles au XVIe siècle, à l’époque la capitale des Pays-Bas bourguignons.

En 1562, en effet, Bruegel s’installe à Bruxelles où il se marie l’année suivante avec Mayken Coeck, fille de son maître Pieter Coecke van Aelst. La Cour de Bruxelles avec celle de Madrid, est alors l’endroit où se joue aussi bien le destin des Flandres que celui des Habsbourg.

Or, à cette époque, l’Empire espagnol qui règne sur les Pays-Bas bourguignons, en dépit des arrivages d’or du Nouveau monde, subira les conséquences dramatiques de quatre faillites d’État : 1557, 1560, 1575 et 1596. Or, comme aujourd’hui, pour faire perdurer la valeur de plus en plus fictive de certains titres financiers, il faut, y compris par la force de l’épée, extorquer la richesse physique des populations qui sont sommées à régler la facture.

Ainsi, comme l’a fort bien analysé feu l’historien d’art Michael Gibson, lorsque Bruegel peint Le dénombrement de Bethléem (1566, année où commence le mouvement iconoclaste), il peint l’occupant espagnol collectant la dîme et lorsqu’il peint Le massacre des innocents (1565), pour figurer les troupes romaines, il peint les sinistres tuniques rouges (les Rhoode Rox) de la gendarmerie impériale de Philippe II qu’on retrouve également dans Le portement de croix (1564). Et lorsqu’il peint la Tour de Babel (1563), où défile le Pape à un des étages supérieurs, il dénonce l’orgueil d’un pouvoir terrestre s’estimant, péché suprême, au-dessus de celui de son Seigneur.

Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle

En tant que fils d’un notable influent, Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (1517-1586), sans être d’origine aristocratique, a eu une carrière fulgurante.

Dès l’âge de 21 ans il est appelé à se mettre au service des Habsbourg en tant qu’évêque d’Arras. Après le décès de son père, il devient le garde des Seaux et le secrétaire d’État de l’Empereur Charles Quint.

A Bruxelles il fait ériger un palais grandiose style Renaissance et il se fait peindre son portrait par le Titien.

Il est à la manœuvre pour marier Philippe II avec Marie Tudor et œuvre comme diplomate, notamment lors du traité de Cateau-Cambrésis (1559). Granvelle sera le conseiller principal de Philippe II dans les années précédent la révolte des Pays-Bas.

Réticent à titre personnel devant la répression, sa loyauté quasi-religieuse au Roi l’amena à appliquer sans état d’âme les mesures les plus extrêmes de l’Inquisition et de Philippe II.

Lorsque ce dernier rentre à Madrid, Granvelle, en contact permanent avec le Roi, imposa sa politique à la jeune Margarite de Parme, la régente.

La Consulta, un cabinet secret de seulement trois personnes assure sa tutelle : Charles de Berlaymont, un administrateur dévoué, Wigle van Aytta (Viglius), un ex-érasmien ayant perdu tout courage pour s’imposer face à un Granvelle omnipuissant. Lorsque la ville d’Anvers devient une poudrière luthérienne, Granvelle fait multiplier les diocèses et se fait nommer en 1561 cardinal-archevêque de Malines obtenant ainsi une voix au Conseil d’État.

La révolte des nobles

En mai 1561, constatant leur mise à l’écart dans l’exercice du pouvoir, dix membres de l’Ordre de la Toison d’or, c’est-à-dire des membres de la noblesse, notamment le comte Lamoral d’Egmont, Philippe de Montmorency comte de Hornes et huit autres seigneurs se réunissent alors chez le Prince Guillaume d’Orange (le « Taciturne »), pour former une « Ligue contre Granvelle » exigeant son départ et celui des troupes espagnoles. Sous la pression, le roi finit par retirer les troupes en 1561 et renvoi Granvelle en Franche-Comté en 1564. Trop peu et trop tard pour aplanir les tensions entre la noblesse et Madrid. Egmont tente alors de plaider la cause à Madrid mais revient avec des promesses assez vagues.

Guillaume d’Orange, dit le Taciturne, lecteur d’Erasme et fondateur de la République des Pays-Bas.

Reprenant à son compte la thèse qui prétend que l’origine de la révolte des Pays-Bas fut un conflit entre d’un coté la noblesse « de robe », du type du cardinal Granvelle et de l’autre, la « noblesse d’épée » comme Guillaume d’Orange, Mme Meganck affirme que

la raison pour la détérioration des relations entre Granvelle et Orange n’était pas tellement un conflit idéologique mais un conflit pour des positions de pouvoir.

Or rien n’est plus faux et méprisant pour ce dirigeant hors du commun. Il serait fastidieux ici de résumer en quelques lignes la biographie très documentée d’Yves Cazaux, Guillaume le Taciturne (Fond Mercator, Albin Michel, Anvers 1973). Le prince d’Orange, tout comme Erasme dès 1517, estimait que si le Vatican persistait à faire de Luther son ennemi principal, les guerres de religions risquaient de ravager l’Europe pendant un siècle et de diviser gravement la chrétienté. Ancien conseiller des Finances, Guillaume savait aussi que la présence des troupes espagnoles, que Granvelle cherchait à renforcer, ne pouvait qu’accélérer le pillage des populations et donc accélérer la désunion.

Dans un moment relativement unique, aux Pays-Bas, aussi bien la noblesse que le peuple voyait leur liberté religieuse, économique et culturelle menacé. Alors que pour Granvelle la défense de son pouvoir personnel et sa richesse coïncidait avec la défense de l’absolutisme espagnol, Guillaume d’Orange défendait, essentiellement en engageant sa fortune personnelle, l’idéal de l’unité et du bien commun.

Notons que l’acte de la Haye (dit « acte d’abjuration ») de 1581, qui formalise l’indépendance des Pays-Bas, souligne que « le prince est là pour ses sujets, sans lesquels il n’est point prince ».

Le même texte utilise le terme néerlandais « verlatinghe » (abandon). Car pour les fondateurs de la République néerlandaise, c’était Philippe II d’Espagne, par ses exactions et en violation de l’intérêt général, qui a abandonné les Dix-sept Provinces, non pas le contraire.

Parlant de Granvelle, grand ami du sanguinaire duc d’Albe chargé de mettre de l’ordre dans le pays après Granvelle, Yves Cazaux estime que

ce prélat ambitieux, distingué, humaniste et jouisseur n’était sans doute pas le plus assoiffé de sang et il a pu écrire avec une certaine vraisemblance qu’il avait tempéré la répression autant qu’il avait pu. On trouve aussi dans ses papiers, sa doctrine et son programme politique pour les Pays-Bas : il avait conseillé au Roi d’incorporer tous les pays ‘en un seule royaume et s’en faire couronner roi absolu’. Au roi absolu de Granvelle, le prince d’Orange opposait la Généralité dans la liberté et la conception érasmienne de la souveraineté nationale. A la croisade de toute la catholicité, vœu de Granvelle et des Guise, le prince opposait la tolérance et la liberté religieuse. Les deux hommes étaient faits pour s’affronter en combat mortel, sans peut-être avoir perdu toute estime pour l’autre.

Chambres de Rhétorique

En 1561, lors du Landjuweel d’Anvers (concours public en plein air de poésie, de chansons, de théâtre et de farces), une pièce de théâtre mettait en scène comment —éclairées par la lumière—, la paix, la charité et la raison, avec l’aide de la prudence, de la rhétorique et de l’inventivité, chassaient la rage, la jalousie et la discorde.

Apport nouveau et important de Mme Meganck, l’influence des Chambres de Rhétorique et le Landjuweel d’Anvers de 1561 sur Bruegel, une piste dont me parla déjà Michael Gibson et qu’il développa dans son livre Le portement de croix (Éditions Noêsis, Paris 1996) qui servira par la suite à la réalisation du film « Bruegel, le moulin et la croix ».

Montrant à quel point la population voyait venir l’orage, en 1562, lorsqu’une Chambre de Rhétorique posa la question : « Qu’est-ce qui permettrait le maintien de la paix ? », les réponses qui prévalaient étaient « la sagesse », « l’obéissance », « la crainte de Dieu » et « l’unité ». Détail intéressant évoqué par Mme Meganck, 4 des 70 réponses évoquaient la chute de Lucifer et les anges rebelles, tellement le thème était populaire.

Un rhétoricien de la Chambre du Saint Esprit de Geraardsbergen ajouta par ailleurs que

La sagesse est également un bien en politique, car la sagesse n’est ni l’orgueil ni le rejet, mais l’amour tendre qui amène les bergers à diriger la communauté, pas avec des préjugés mais avec un cœur joyeux, sans penser à eux-mêmes ou être assoiffé de pouvoir, mais en cherchant le bien-être du peuple, comme un père le fait pour ses enfants : voilà les bon dirigeants pour la communauté laïque.

Alors que ces expressions culturelles étaient une soupape de sécurité inestimable permettant d’éviter l’explosion de la cocotte-minute sociétale, dès la moindre critique des ecclésiastiques, la répression frappait.

Scène d’une procession à Anvers. Tableau d’Erasmus de Bie.

Après qu’une Chambre de rhétorique avait ironisé en 1560 sur le clergé et le saint Esprit, et après une enquête approfondie à propos de ces « pièces scandaleuses » menée par Granvelle en personne, un placard ordonna qu’à partir de là, toutes les chansons et poèmes, avant d’être chantés ou récités, nécessitaient une autorisation préalable par les autorités religieuses et temporelles.

Commanditaire ?

Granvelle, peint par Frans Floris.

Lorsque Mme Meganck écrit (p. 155) que « L’hypothèse que Granvelle aurait commandité la Chute des anges, ou que Bruegel aurait adressé son invention spécifiquement à lui, permettrait de jeter une nouvelle lumière sur le cœur de son iconographie », je peux souscrire à la deuxième partie de son énoncé.

Cependant, lorsqu’elle poursuit « Dans le contexte de la révolte de la noblesse locale des Pays-Bas contre Granvelle, l’intention du tableau semble extrêmement pertinent : ceux qui se rebellent contre l’ordre établi finiront en ruine », on ne la suit plus. Car rien n’est plus juste, de contester une autorité illégitime (mais parfois légale), au nom d’une autorité supérieure fondée sur le bien, le vrai et le beau, comme l’a fait le général De Gaulle contre l’occupation Nazie et un régime collaborationniste qui le condamna à mort ! Si l’on appliquait ce raisonnement à la France de 1940, De Gaulle aurait été Lucifer !

Pour sa défense, Mme Meganck, qui récuse « la propagande de la révolte néerlandaise » pour qui Granvelle aurait été « un monstre assoiffé de sang », rapporte que ce dernier, un collectionneur passionné de tableaux et de curiosités de toutes sortes, artificielles et naturelles, et disposant d’un nain à son service, s’intéressait aussi bien à l’œuvre de Jérôme Bosch qu’à celle de Bruegel. Philippe II aurait même retardé son redéploiement à Besançon tellement il approvisionnait la cour de Madrid avec toutes sortes d’objets extravagants.

Mme Meganck rappelle que l’inventaire de la collection de Granvelle, une collection enrichie après sa mort par sa famille, comprenait en 1607 La fuite en Égypte, une œuvre de Bruegel l’Ancien datée de 1563. En 1575, plusieurs années après la mort de Bruegel, l’évêque de Tournai Maximilien Morillon, son confident, signale à Granvelle que les prix des tableaux du peintre ont nettement augmenté.

Mme Meganck, se contredisant, nous dit qu’il est regrettable qu’aucune preuve formelle n’existe pour affirmer que Granvelle aurait commandité une œuvre auprès de Bruegel tout en disant, page 146 :

Granvelle est un des rares amateurs d’art connu qui a probablement possédé des peintures de Bruegel durant la vie de l’artiste.

Collectionneur érudit

Etude d’insectes divers, anonyme, vers 1550.

Le livre de Mme Meganck constate également que le tableau de Bruegel grenouille (c’est le cas de le dire) de références à des objets exotiques qui commençaient à faire la fierté des collectionneurs érudits tel que Granvelle : papillons, oiseaux et poissons exotiques, cadrans solaires et instruments de musique, pièces d’armures, casques et calices.

Par exemple, Mme Meganck épingle dans son livre un beau papillon qui aurait pu faire partie de ce genre de collections et qu’on le retrouve au centre de La chute des anges rebelles.

Vanité, de Jan Sanders Van Hemessen (vers 1540).

Notez que ce type de papillon figure également dans la Vanité (1540) de Jan Sanders Van Hemessen comme métaphore du caractère éphémère de l’existence humaine, une thématique qui ne pouvait qu’intéresser l’érasmien qu’était Bruegel. Bruegel aurait-il voulu séduire Granvelle en étalant de tels objets exotiques ? tente l’auteure.

Tout au contraire, notre Bruegel, Pierre le drôle, semble bien avoir cherché à montrer comment des individus comme Granvelle, des possédants possédés par leurs possessions, finiraient bien par emporter leurs riches collections luxueuses dans leur chute.

Un dernier détail, un des rares qui semble bizarrement avoir échappé à l’auteure, conforte plutôt notre hypothèse tout en mettant à mal la sienne : en bas au milieu du tableau quelques unes des sept têtes couronnées de couronnes du dragon de l’Apocalypse (Note 1) symbolisent de façon métaphorique le pouvoir absolutiste si cher à Granvelle. Le commanditaire serait donc plutôt à chercher du côté de Guillaume le Taciturne.

Soulignons que c’est lorsqu’en juin 1580 Philippe II signe un édit promettant à quiconque tuerait Guillaume d’Orange, l’anoblissement et 25 000 écus, que Balthazar Gérard, un franche-comtois fanatisé (Note 2), se rend à Delft aux Pays-Bas et l’abat de trois balles de pistolet.

Pour conclure, précisons également que Mme Meganck n’a pas trouvé l’endroit propice dans son texte pour rapporter l’affirmation de Karel Van Mander, auteur du Schilderboeck de 1604, que peu avant sa mort et au moment où chaque famille bruxelloise se voit contrainte par l’occupant d’accueillir chez elle des soldats espagnols sans solde, Bruegel ordonna à sa femme de brûler ses lettres et œuvres sur papier par crainte des ennuis qu’elles pourraient lui procurer à elle et ses enfants.

La bonne nouvelle, c’est que la Chute des anges rebelles, certes un livre ouvert pour ceux qui voudront bien le lire, gardera encore pour un certain temps ses mystères.


NOTES:

*1: Dans le Livre de l’Apocalypse 13:1 et 13:2, il est dit : « Et il se tint sur le sable de la mer. Puis je vis monter de la mer une bête qui avait dix cornes et sept têtes, et sur ses cornes dix diadèmes, et sur ses têtes des noms de blasphème. La bête que je vis était semblable à un léopard ; ses pieds étaient comme ceux d’un ours, et sa gueule comme une gueule de lion. Le dragon lui donna sa puissance, et son trône, et une grande autorité.… »

*2: Le village natal de l’assassin, Vuillafans, à 42 km de Besançon (ville natale du cardinal Granvelle) dans le Doubs, conserve fièrement sa maison et une rue porte son nom…

Merci de partager !