Étiquette : Ruusbroec

 

Van Eyck, a Flemish Painter using Arab Optics?

What follows is an edited transcript of a lecture by Karel Vereycken on the subject of “Perspective in XVth-century Flemish religious painting”.

It was delivered at the international colloquium “La recherche du divin à travers l’espace géométrique” (The quest for the divine through geometrical space) at the Paris Sorbonne University on April 26-28, 2006, under the direction of Luc Bergmans, Department of Dutch Studies (Paris IV Sorbonne University).

Introduction

« Perspective in XVth-century Flemish religious painting ». At first glance, this title may seem surprising. While the genius of fifteenth-century Flemish painters is universally attributed to their mastery of drying oil and their intricate sense of detail, their spatial geometry as such is usually identified as the very counter-example of the “right perspective”.

Disdained by Michelangelo and his faithful friend Vasari, the Flemish « primitives » would never have overcome the medieval, archaic and empirical model. For the classical “narritive”, still in force today, stipulates that only « Renaissance » perspective, obeying the canon of « linear », “mathematical” perspective, is the only « right », and the “scientific” one.

According to the same narrative, it was the research carried out around 1415-20 by the Duomo architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), superficially mentioned by Antonio Tuccio di Manetti some 60 years later, which supposedly enabled Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472), proclaiming himself Brunelleschi’s intellectual heir, to invent « perspective ».

Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Madrid II, examination of the Albertian model

In 1435, in De Pictura, a book entirely devoid of graphic illustration, Alberti is said to have formulated the premises of a perspectivist canon capable of representing, or at least conforming to, our modern notions of Cartesian space-time (NOTE 1), a space-time characterized as « entirely rational, i.e. infinite, continuous and homogeneous », « in one word, a purely mathematical space [dixit Panofsky] » (NOTE 2)

Long afterwards, in a drawing from the Codex Madrid, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) attempted to unravel the workings of this model.

But in the same manuscript, he rigorously demonstrated the inherent limitations of the Albertian Renaissance perspectivist canon.

Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Madrid II, f°15, v°, critical examination of the Albertian system.

The drawing on f°15, v° clearly shows that the simple projection of visual pyramid cross-sections on a plane paradoxically causes their size to increase the further they are from the point of vision, whereas reality would require exactly the opposite. (NOTE 3)

With this in mind, Leonardo began to question the mobility of the eye and the curvilinear nature of the retina. Refusing to immobilize the viewer on an exclusive point of vision (NOTE 4), Leonardo used curvilinear constructions to correct these lateral deformations. (NOTE 5) In France, Jean Fouquet and others worked along the same lines.

But Leonardo’s powerful arguments were ignored, and he was unable to prevent this rewriting of history.

Despite this official version of art history, it should be noted that at the time, Flemish painters were elevated to pinnacles by Italy’s greatest patrons and art connoisseurs, specifically for their ability to represent space.

Bartolomeo Fazio, around the middle of the 15th century, observed that the paintings of Jan van Eyck, an artist billed as the « principal painter of our time », showed « tiny figures of men, mountains, groves, villages and castles rendered with such skill that one would think them fifty thousand paces apart. » (NOTE 6)

Such was their reputation that some of the great names in Italian painting had no qualms about reproducing Flemish works identically. I’m thinking, for example, of the copy of Hans Memlinc‘s Christ Crowned with Thorns at the Genoa Museum, copied by Domenico Ghirlandajo (Philadelphia Museum).

But post-Michelangelo classicism deemed the non-conformity of Flemish spatial geometry with Descartes’ « extended substance » to be an unforgivable crime, and any deviation from, or insubordination to, the « Renaissance » perspectivist canon relegated them to the category of « primitives », i.e. « empiricists », clearly devoid of any scientific culture.

Today, ironically, it is almost exclusively those artists who explicitly renounce all forms of perspectivist construction in favor of pseudo-naïveté, who earn the label of modernity…

Robert Campin, Mérode Altarpiece (c. 1427)

In any case, current prejudices mean that 15th-century Flemish painting is still accused of having ignored perspective.

It’s true, however, that at the end of the XIVth century, certain paintings by Melchior Broederlam (c. 1355-1411) and others by Robert Campin (1375-1444) (Master of Flémalle) show the viewer interiors where plates and cutlery on tables threaten to suddenly slide to the floor.

Nevertheless, it must be admitted that whenever the artist « ignores » or disregards the linear perspective scheme, he seems to do so more by choice than by incapacity. To achieve a limpid composition, the painter prioritizes his didactic mission to the detriment of all other considerations.

For example, in Campin’s Mérode Altarpiece, the exaggerated perspective of the table clearly shows that the vase is behind the candlestick and book.

Jan van Eyck, central panel of the Lam Gods [Mystic Lamb], (1432).
Robert Campin, detail of shadows, Merod Altarpiece (c. 1427)

Jan van Eyck’s Lam Gods (Mystic Lamb) in Ghent is another example.

Never could so many figures, with so much detail and presence, be shown with a linear perspective where the figures in the foreground would hide those behind. (NOTE 7)

But the intention to approximate a credible sense of space and depth remains.

If this perspective seems flawed by its linear geometry, Campin imposes an extraordinary sense of space through his revolutionary treatment of shadows. As every painter knows, light is painted by painting shadow.

In Campin’s work, every object and figure is exposed to several sources of light, generating a darker central shadow as the fruit of crossed shadows.

Van Eyck influenced by Arab Optics?


Roger Bacon, statue in Oxord.

This new treatment of light-space has been largely ignored. However, there are several indications that this new conception was partly the result of the influence of « Arab » science, in particular its work on optics.

Translated into Latin and studied from the XIIth century onwards, their work was developed in particular by a network of Franciscans whose epicenter was in Oxford (Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, etc.) and whose influence spread to Chartres, Paris, Cologne and the rest of Europe.

It should be noted that Jan van Eyck (1395-1441), an emblematic figure of Flemish painting, was ambassador to Paris, Prague, Portugal and England.

I’ll briefly mention three elements that support this hypothesis of the influence of Arab science.

Jan van Eyck, Arnolfini couple (1434)

Curved mirrors

Robert Campin, detail of the left panel of the Werl triptych (c. 1438)

Robert Campin (master of Flémalle) in the Werl Triptych (1438) and Jan van Eyck in the Arnolfini portrait (1434), each feature convex mirrors of considerable size.

It is now certain that glaziers and mirror-makers were full members of the Saint Luc guild, the painters’ guild. (NOTE 8)

But it is relevant to know that Campin, now recognized as having run the workshop in Tournai where the painters Van der Weyden and Jacques Daret were trained, produced paintings for the Franciscans in this city. Heinrich Werl, who commissioned the altarpiece featuring the convex mirror, was an eminent Franciscan theologian who taught at the University of Cologne.


Artistic representation of Ibn Al-Haytam (Alhazen)

These convex and concave (or ardent) mirrors were much studied during the Arab renaissance of the IXth to XIth centuries, in particular by the Arab philosopher Al-Kindi (801-873) in Baghdad at the time of Charlemagne.

Arab scientists were not only in possession of the main body of Hellenic work on optics (Euclid‘s Optics, Ptolemy‘s Optics, the works of Heron of Alexandria, Anthemius of Tralles, etc.), but it was sometimes the rigorous refutation of this heritage that was to give science its wings.

After the decisive work of Ibn Sahl (Xth century), it was that of Ibn Al-Haytam (Latin name : Alhazen) (NOTE 9) on the nature of light, lenses and spherical mirrors that was to have a major influence. (NOTE 10)

Robert Grosseteste, illustration from De Natura Locorum, refraction of light in a spherical glass filled with water


As mentioned above, these studies were taken up by the Oxford Franciscans, starting with the English bishop of Lincoln, Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253).

In De Natura Locorum, for example, Grosseteste shows a diagram of the refraction of light in a spherical glass filled with water. And in his De Iride he marvels at this science which he connexts to perspective :

« This part of optics, so well understood, shows us how to make very distant things appear as if they were situated very near, and how we can make small things situated at a distance appear to the size we desire, so that it becomes possible for us to read the smallest letters from incredible distances, or to count sand, or grains, or any small object.« 

Annonciation (detail), painting of Rogier van der Weyden (or his workshop). The spherical vessel filled with water, letting through the light, is a metaphore of the immaculate conception.

Grosseteste’s pupil Roger Bacon (1212-1292) wrote De Speculis Comburentibus, a specific treatise on « Ardent Mirrors » which elaborates on Ibn Al-Haytam‘s work.

Flemish painters Campin, Van Eyck and Van der Weyden proudly display their knowledge of this new scientific and technological revolution metamorphosed into Christian symbolisms.

Their paintings feature not only curved mirrors but also glass bottles, which they use as a metaphor for the immaculate conception.

A Nativity hymn of that period says:

« As through glass the ray passed without breaking it, so of the Virgin Mother, Virgin she was and virgin she remained… » (NOTE 11)

The Treatment of Light

In his Discourse on Light, Ibn Al-Haytam develops his theory of light propagation in extremely poetic language, setting out requirements that remind us of the « Eyckian revolution ». Indeed, Flemish « realism » and perspective are the result of a new treatment of light and color.

Ibn Al-Haytam:

« The light emitted by a luminous body by itself -substantial light- and the light emitted by an illuminated body -accidental light- propagate on the bodies surrounding them. Opaque bodies can be illuminated and then in turn emit light. »

Jan van Eyck, Madonna to Canon van der Paele (1436)

This physical principle, theorized by Leonardo da Vinci, is omnipresent in Flemish painting. Just look at the images reflected in the helmet of St. George in Van Eyck‘s Madonna to Canon van der Paele (NOTE 12).

In each curved surface of Saint George’s helmet, we can identify the reflection of the Virgin and even a window through which light enters the painting.

The shining shield on St. George’s back reflects the base of the adjacent column, and the painter’s portrait appears as a signature. Only a knowledge of the optics of curved surfaces can explain this rendering.

Ibn Al-Haytam:

« Light can penetrate transparent bodies: water, air, crystal and their counterparts. »

And :

« Transparent bodies have, like opaque bodies, a ‘receiving power’ for light, but transparent bodies also have a ‘transmitting power’ for light.« 

Isn’t the development of oil mediums and glazes by the Flemish an echo of this research? Alternating opaque and translucent layers on very smooth panels, the specificity of the oil medium alters the angle of light refraction.

In 1559, the painter-poet Lucas d’Heere referred to van Eyck‘s paintings as « mirrors, not painted scenes.« 

Binocular perspective

Diagram of binocular vision, Witelo, Perspectiva, III, 37.

Before the advent of « right » central linear perspective, art historians sought a coherent explanation for its birth in the presence of several seemingly disparate vanishing points by theorizing a so-called central « fishbone » perspective.

In this model, a number of vanishing lines, instead of coinciding in a single central vanishing point on the horizon, either end up in a « vanishing region » (NOTE 13), or align with what some call a vertical « vanishing axis », forming a kind of « fishbone ».

French Professor Dominique Raynaud, who worked for years on this issue, underscores that « all medieval treatises on perspective address the question of binocular vision », notably the Polish scholar Witelo (1230-1280) (NOTE 15) in his Perspectiva (I,27), an insight he also got from the works of Ibn Al-Haytam.

Witelo presents a figure to defend the idea that

« the two forms, which penetrate two homologous points of the surface of the two eyes, arrive at the same point of the concavity of the common nerve, and are superimposed at this point to become one » (Perspectiva, III, 37).

A similar line of reasoning can be found in Roger Bacon‘s Perspectiva Communis, written by John Pecham, Archbishop of Canterbury (1240-1290) for whom:

« the duality of the eyes must be reduced to unity »

So, as Professor Raynaud proposed, if we extend the famous vanishing lines (i.e., in our case, the « fish bones ») until they intersect, the « vanishing axis » problem disappears, as the vanishing lines meet. Interestingly, the result is a perspective with two vanishing points in the central region!

The « primitive » « fishbone perspective » (left), in reality hides a sophisticated binocular perspective construction that Panofsky refused to see.

Suddenly, the diagrams drawn up to demonstrate the « empiricism » of the Flemish painters, if viewed from this point of view, reveal a legitimate construction probably based on optics as transmitted by Arab science and rediscovered by Franciscan networks and others.

Two paintings by Jan van Eyck clearly demonstrate that he followed this approach: The Madonna with Canon van der Paele of 1436 and the Dresden Tryptic of 1437.

Jan Van Eyck, Madonna with Canon van der Paele (1436)
Jan van Eyck, central panel of the Dresden Triptych (1437).

What seemed a clumsy, empirical approach in the form of a « fishbone » perspective (left) turns out to be a binocular perspective construction.

Was this type of perspective specifically Flemish?

A close examination of works by Ghiberti, Donatello and Paolo Uccello, generally dating from the first half of the XVth Century, reveals a mastery of the same principle.

Cusanus

But this whole demonstration is merely a look into the past through the eyes of modern scientific rationality. It would be a grave error not to take into account the immense influence of the Rhenish (Master Eckhart, Johannes Tauler, Heinrich Suso) and Flemish (Hadewijch of Antwerp, Jan van Ruusbroec, etc.) « mystics ».

This trend began to flourish again with the rediscovery of the Christianized neo-Platonism of Dionysius the Areopagite (Vth-VIth century), made accessible… by the new translations of the Franciscan Grosseteste in Oxford.

The spiritual vision of the Aeropagite, expressed in a powerful imagery language, is directly reminiscent of the metaphorical approach of the Flemish painters, for whom a certain type of light is simply the revelation of divine grace.

In On the Heavenly Hierarchy, Dionysius immediately presents light as a manifestation of divine goodness. It ennobles us and enables us to enlighten others:

« Let those who are illuminated be filled with divine clarity, and the eyes of their understanding trained to the work of chaste contemplation; finally, let those who are perfected, once their primitive imperfection has been abolished, share in the sanctifying science of the marvelous teachings that have already been manifested to them; similarly, let the purifier excel in the purity he communicates to others; let the illuminator, gifted with a greater penetration of spirit, equally fit to receive and transmit light, happily flooded with sacred splendor, pour it out in pressing streams on those who are worthy…  » [Chap. III, 3]

Let’s think again of the St. George in Van Eyck‘s Madonna to Canon van der Paele, which indeed pours forth the multiple images of the Virgin who enlightens him.

This theo-philosophical trend reached full maturity in the work of Cardinal Nicolas of Cusa (Cusanus) (1401-1464) (NOTE 16), embodying the extremely fruitful encounter of this « negative theology » with Greek science, Socratic knowledge and Christian Humanism.

Face of Christ.

In contrast to both a science « without a hypothesis of God » and a metaphysics with an esoteric drift, an agapic love leads it to the education of the greatest number, to the defense of the weak and the humiliated.

The Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life, educating Erasmus of Rotterdam and inspiring Cusanus, are the best example of this.

But let’s sketch out some of Cusanus’ key ideas on painting.

In De Icona (The Vision of God) (1453), which he sent to the Benedictine monks of the Tegernsee, Cusanus condenses his fundamental work On Learned Ignorance (1440), in which he develops the concept of the coincidence of opposites. His starting point was a self-portrait of his friend « Roger », the Flemish painter Rogier van der Weyden, which he sent together with his sermon to the monks.

This self-portrait, like the multiple faces of Christ painted in the XVth century, uses an « optical illusion » to create the effect of a gaze that fixes the viewer, regardless of his or her position in front of the altarpiece.

In De Icona, written as a sermon, Cusanus asks monks to stand in a semicircle around the painting and watch this gaze pursue them as they move along the segment of the curve. In fact, he elaborates a pedagogical paradox based on the fact that the Greek name for God, Theos, has its etymological origin in the verb theastai (to see, to look at).

As you can see, he says, God looks at you personally, and his gaze follows you everywhere. He is therefore one and many. And even when you turn away from him, his gaze falls on you. So, miraculously, although he looks at everyone at the same time, he nevertheless establishes a personal relationship with each one. If « seeing » for God is « loving », God’s point of vision is infinite, omniscient and omnipotent love.

Arnolfini portrait (detail), Van Eyck, 1434.

A parallel can be drawn here with the spherical mirror at the center of Jan van Eyck’s painting The Arnolfini portrait, painted in 1434, nineteen years before this sermon.

Firstly, this circular mirror is surrounded by the ten stations of Christ’s Passion, juxtaposed by a rosary, an explicit reference to God.

Secondly, it reveals a view of the entire room, an image that completely escapes the linear perspective of the foreground. A view comparable to the allcompassing « Vision of God » developed by Cusanus.

Finally, we see two figures in the mirror, but not the image of the painter behind his easel. These are undoubtedly the two witnesses to the wedding. Instead of signing his painting with « Van Eyck invent. », the painter signed his painting above the mirror with « Van Eyck was here » (NOTE 17), identifying himself as a witness.

As Dionysius the Aeropagite asserted:

« [the celestial hierarchy] transforms its adepts into so many images of God: pure and splendid mirrors where the eternal and ineffable light can shine, and which, according to the desired order, reflect liberally on inferior things this borrowed brightness with which they shine. » [Chap. III, 2]

The Flemish mystic Jan van Ruusbroec (1293-1381) evokes a very similar image in his Spiegel der eeuwigher salicheit (Mirror of eternal salvation) when he says:

« Ende Hi heeft ieghewelcs mensche ziele gescapen alse eenen levenden spieghel, daer Hi dat Beelde sijnre natueren in gedruct heeft. » (And he created each human soul as a living mirror, in which he imprinted the image of his nature).

And so, like a polished mirror, Van Eyck’s soul, illuminated and living in God’s truth, acts as an illuminating witness to this union. (NOTE 18)

So, although the Flemish painters of the XVth century clearly had a solid scientific foundation, they choose such or such perspective depending on the idea they wanted to convey.

In essence, their paintings remain objects of theo-philosophical speculation or as you like « intellectual prayer », capable of praising the goodness, beauty and magnificence of a Creator who created them in His own image. By the very nature of their approach, their interest lay above all in the geometry of a kind of « paradoxical space-light » capable, through enigma, of opening us up to a participatory transcendence, rather than simply seeking to « represent » a dead space existing outside metaphysical reality.

The only geometry worthy of interest was that which showed itself capable of articulating this non-linearity, a « divine » or « mystical » perspective capable of linking the infinite beauty of our commensurable microcosm with the immeasurable goodness of the macrocosm.

Thank you,

NOTES:

  1. Recently, Italian scholars have pointed to the role of Biagio Pelacani Da Parma (d. 1416), a professor at the University of Padua near Venice, in imposing such a perspective, which privileged only the « geometrical laws of the act of vision and the rules of mathematical calculation ».
  2. Erwin Panofsky, Perspective as Symbolic Form, p.41-42, Les Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1975.
  3. Institut de France, Manuscrit E, 16 v° « the eye [h] perceives on the plane wall the images of distant objects greater than that of the nearer object. »
  4. Leonardo understands that Albertian perspective, like anamorphosis, condemns the viewer to a single, immobile point of vision.
  5. See, for example, the slight enlargement of the apostles at the ends of Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper in the Milan refectory.
  6. Baxandall, Bartholomaeus Facius on painting, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 27, (1964). Fazio is also enthusiastic about a world map (now lost) by Jan van Eyck, in which all the places and regions of the earth are depicted recognizably and at measurable distances.
  7. To escape this fate, Pieter Bruegel the Elder used a cavalier perspective, placing his horizon line high up.
  8. Lionel Simonot, Etude expérimentale et modélisation de la diffusion de la lumière dans une couche de peinture colorée et translucide. Application à l’effet visuel des glacis et des vernis, p.9 (PhD thesis, Nov. 2002).
  9. Ibn Al-Haytam (Alhazen) (965-1039) wrote some 200 works on mathematics, astronomy, physics, medicine and philosophy. Born in Basra, after working on the development of the Nile in Egypt, he travelled to Spain. He is said to have carried out a series of highly detailed experiments on theoretical and experimental optics, including the camera obscura (darkroom), work that was later to feature in Leonardo da Vinci’s studies. Da Vinci may well have read the lengthy passages by Alhazen that appear in the Commentari of the Florentine sculptor Ghiberti. According to Gerbert d’Aurillac (the future Pope Sylvester II in 999), Bishop of Rheims, brought back from Spain the decimal system with its zero and an astrolabe, it was thanks to Gerard of Cremona (1114-c. 1187) that Europe gained access to Greek, Jewish and Arabic science. This scholar went to Toledo in 1175 to learn Arabic, and translated some 80 scientific works from Arabic into Latin, including Ptolemy’s Almagest, Apollonius’ Conics, several treatises by Aristotle, Avicenna‘s Canon, and the works of Ibn Al-Haytam, Al-Kindi, Thabit ibn Qurra and Al-Razi.
  10. In the Arab world, this research was taken up a century later by the Persian physicist Al-Farisi (1267-1319). He wrote an important commentary on Alhazen’s Treatise on Optics. Using a drop of water as a model, and based on Alhazen’s theory of double refraction in a sphere, he gave the first correct explanation of the rainbow. He even suggested the wave-like property of light, whereas Alhazen had studied light using solid balls in his reflection and refraction experiments. The question was now: does light propagate by undulation or by particle transport?
  11. Meiss, M., Light as form and symbol in some fifteenth century paintings, Art Bulletin, XVIII, 1936, p. 434.
  12. Note also the fact that the canon shows a pair of glasses…
  13. Brion-Guerry in Jean Pèlerin Viator, sa place dans l’histoire de la perspective, Belles Lettres, 1962, p. 94-96, states in obscure language that « the object of representation behaves most often in Van Eyck as a cubic volume seen from the front and from the inside. Perspectival foreshortening is achieved by constructing a rectangle whose sides form the base of four trapezoids. The orthogonals thus tend towards four distinct points of convergence, forming a ‘vanishing region' ».
  14. Dominique Raynaud, L’Hypothèse d’Oxford, essai sur les origines de la perpective, PUF, Paris 1998.
  15. Witelo was a friend of the Flemish Dominican scholar Willem van Moerbeke, a translator of Archimedes in contact with Saint Thomas Aquinas. Moerbeke was also in contact with the mathematician Jean Campanus and the Flemish neo-Platonic astronomer Hendrik Bate van Mechelen. Johannes Kepler‘s own work on human vision builds on that of Witelo.
  16. Cusanus was above all a man of science and theology. But he was also a political organizer. The painter Jan van Eyck fought for the same goals, as evidenced by the ecumenical theme of the Ghent polyptych. It shows the Mystic Lamb, symbolizing the sacrifice of the Son of God for the redemption of mankind, capable of reuniting a church torn apart by internal differences. Hence the presence of the three popes in the central panel, here united before the lamb. Van Eyck also painted a portrait of Cardinal Niccolo Albergati, one of the instigators of the great Ecumenical Council organized by Cusanus in Ferrara and then moved to Florence. If Cusanus called Van der Weyden « his friend Roger », it is also thought that Robert Campin may have met him, since he would have attended the Council of Basel, as did one of his commissioners, the Franciscan theologian Heinrich Werl.
  17. Jan Van Eyck was one of the first painters in the history of art to date and sign his paintings with his own name.
  18. Myriam Greilsammer’s book L’Envers du tableau, Mariage et Maternité en Flandre Médiévale (Editions Armand Colin, 1990) documents Arnolfini’s sexual escapades. Arnolfini was taken to court by one of his victims, a female servant. Van Eyck seems to have understood that the knightly Arnoult Fin, Lucchese financier and commercial representative of the House of Medici in Bruges, required the somewhat peculiar presence of the eye of the lord.
Merci de partager !

Devotio Moderna, Brothers of the Common Life: the cradle of humanism in the North

Brewery of the Monastery of Windesheim, now a church. Joan Cele, teacher and friend of Groote, is buried here with his friends.

Presentation of Karel Vereycken, founder of Agora Erasmus, at a meeting with friends in the Netherlands on September 10, 2011.

The current financial system is bankrupt and will collapse in the coming days, weeks, months or years if nothing is done to end the paradigm of financial globalization, monetarism and free trade.

To exit this crisis implies organizing a break-up of the banks according to principles of the Glass-Steagall Act, an indispensable lever to recreate a true credit system in opposition to the current monetarist system. The objective is to guarantee real investments generating physical and human wealth, thanks to large infrastructure projects and highly qualified and well-paid jobs.

Can this be done? Yes, we can! However, the true challenge is neither economic, nor political, but cultural and educational: how to lay the foundations of a new Renaissance, how to effect a civilizational shift away from green and Malthusian pessimism towards a culture that sets itself the sacred mission of fully developing the creative powers of each individual, whether here, in Africa, or elsewhere.

Is there a historical precedent? Yes, and especially here, from where I am speaking to you this morning (Naarden, Netherlands) with a certain emotion. It probably overwhelms me because I have a rather well informed and precise sense of the role that several key individuals from the region where we are gathered this morning have played and how, in the fourteenth century, they made Deventer, Zwolle and Windesheim an intellectual hotbed and the cradle of the Renaissance of the North which inspired so many worldwide.

Let me summarize for you the history of this movement of lay clerics and teachers: the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life, a movement that nurished our beloved Erasmus of Rotterdam, the humanist giant from whom we borrowed the name to create our political movement in Belgium.

As very often, it all begins with an individual decision of someone to overcome his shortcomings and give up those « little compromises » that end up making most of us slaves. In doing so, this individual quickly appears as a « natural » leader. Do you want to become a leader? Start by cleaning up your own mess before giving lessons to others!

Geert Groote, the founder

Geert Groote, founder of the Brothers of the Common Life.

The spiritual father of the Brothers is Geert Groote, born in 1340 and son of a wealthy textile merchant in Deventer, which at that time, like Zwolle, Kampen and Roermond, were prosperous cities of the Hanseatic League.

In 1345, as a result of the international financial crash, the Black Death spread throughout Europe and arrived in the Netherlands around 1449-50. Between a third and a half of the population died and, according to some sources, Groote lost both parents. He abhorred the hypocrisy of the hordes of flagellants who invaded the streets and later advocated a less conspicuous, more interior spirituality.

Groote had talent for intellectual matters and was soon sent to study in Paris. In 1358, at the age of eighteen, he obtained the title of Master of Arts, even though the statutes of the University stipulated that the minimum age required was twenty-one.

He stayed eight years in Paris where he taught, while making a few excursions to Cologne and Prague. During this time, he assimilated all that could be known about philosophy, theology, medicine, canon law and astronomy. He also learned Latin, Greek and Hebrew and was considered one of the greatest scholars of the time.

Around 1362 he became canon of Aachen Cathedral and in 1371 of that of Utrecht. At the age of 27, he was sent as a diplomat to Cologne and to the Court of Avignon to settle the dispute between the city of Deventer and the bishop of Utrecht with Pope Urban V. In principle, he could have met the Italian humanist Petrarch who was there at that time.

Full of knowledge and success, Groote got a big head. His best friends, conscious of his talents, kindly suggested him to detach himself from his obsession with « Earthly Paradise ». The first one was his friend Guillaume de Salvarvilla, the choirmaster of Notre-Dame of Paris. The second was Henri Eger of Kalkar (1328-1408) with whom Groote shared the benches of the Sorbonne.

In 1374, Groote got seriously ill. However, the priest of Deventer refused to administer the last sacraments to him as long as he refused to burn some of the books in his possession. Fearing for his life (after death), he decided to burn his collection of books on black magic. Finally, he felt better and healed. He also gave up living in comfort and lucre through fictitious jobs that allowed him to get rich without working too hard.

After this radical conversion, Groote decides to selfperfect. In his Conclusions and Resolutions he wrote:

« It is to the glory, honor and service of God that I propose to order my life and the salvation of my soul. (…) In the first place, not to desire any other benefit and not to put my hope and expectation from now on in any temporal profit. The more goods I have, the more I will probably want more. For according to the primitive Church, you cannot have several benefits. Of all the sciences of the Gentiles, the moral sciences are the least detestable: many of them are often useful and profitable both for oneself and for teaching others. The wisest, like Socrates and Plato, brought all philosophy back to ethics. And if they spoke of high things, they transmitted them (according to St. Augustine and my own experience) by moralizing them lightly and figuratively, so that morality always shines through in knowledge… ».

Groote then undertakes a spiritual retreat at the Carthusian monastery of Monnikshuizen near Arnhem where he devotes himself to prayer and study.

However, after a three-year stay in isolation, the prior, his Parisian friend Eger of Kalkar, told him to go out and teach :

« Instead of remaining cloistered here, you will be able to do greater good by going out into the world to preach, an activity for which God has given you a great talent. »

Ruusbroec, the inspirer

The Flemish mystic Jan van Ruusbroec.

Groote accepted the challenge. However, before taking action, he decided to make a last trip to Paris in 1378 to obtain the books he needed.

According to Pomerius, prior of Groenendael between 1431 and 1432, he undertook this trip with his friend from Zwolle, the teacher Joan Cele (around 1350-1417), the historical founder of the excellent Dutch public education system, the Latin School.

On their way to Paris, they visit Jan van Ruusbroec (1293-1381), a Flemish “mystic” who lived in the Groenendael Priory on the edge of the Soignes Forest near Brussels.

Groote, still living in fear of God and the authorities, initially tries to make « more acceptable » some of the old sage’s writings while recognizing Ruusbroec as closer to the Lord than he is. In a letter to the community of Groenendael, he requested the prayer of the prior:

« I would like to recommend myself to the prayer of your provost and prior. For the time of eternity, I would like to be ‘the prior’s stepladder’, as long as my soul is united to him in love and respect.” (Note 1)

Back in Deventer, Groote concentrated on study and preaching. First he presented himself to the bishop to be ordained a deacon. In this function, he obtained the right to preach in the entire bishopric of Utrecht (basically the whole part of today’s Netherlands north of the great rivers, except for the area around Groningen).

First he preached in Deventer, then in Zwolle, Kampen, Zutphen and later in Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda and Delft. His success is so great that jealousy is felt in the church. Moreover, with the chaos caused by the great schism (1378 to 1417) installing two popes at the head of the church, the believers are looking for a new generation of leaders.

As early as 1374, Groote offered part of his parents’ house to accommodate a group of pious women. Endowed with a by-law, the first house of sisters was born in Deventer. He named them « Sisters of the Common Life », a concept developed in several works of Ruusbroec, notably in the final paragraph Of the Shining Stone (Van den blinckende Steen)

« The man who is sent from this height to the world below, is full of truth, and rich in all virtues. And he does not seek his own, but the honor of the one who sent him. And that is why he is upright and truthful in all things. And he has a rich and benevolent foundation grounded in the riches of God. And so he must always convey the spirit of God to those who need it; for the living fountain of the Holy Spirit is not a wealth that can be wasted. And he is a willing instrument of God with whom the Lord works as He wills, and how He wills. And it is not for sale, but leaves the honor to God. And for this reason he remains ready to do whatever God commands; and to do and tolerate with strength whatever God entrusts to him. And so he has a common life; for to him seeing [via contemplativa] and working [via activa] are equal, for in both things he is perfect.”

Radewijns, the organizer

Latin School (Woodcut of the XVIth century)

Following one of his first sermons, Groote recruited Florens Radewijns (1350-1400). Born in Utrecht, the latter received his training in Prague where, also at the early age of 18, he was awarded the title of Magister Artium.

Groote then sent him to the German city of Worms to be consecrated priest there. In 1380 Groote moved with about ten pupils to the house of Radewijns in Deventer; it would later be known as the « Sir Florens House” (Heer Florenshuis), the first house of the Brothers and above all its base of operation?

When Groote died of the plague in 1384, Radewijns decided to expand the movement which became the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life. Soon it will be branded the Devotio Moderna (Modern Devotion).

Books and beguinages

Beguinage of Kortrijk.
Lace production.

A number of parallels can be drawn with the phenomenon of the Beguines which flourished from the 13th century onward. (Note 2)

The first beguines were independent women, living alone (without a man or a rule), animated by a deep spirituality and daring to venture into the enormous adventure of a personal relationship with God. (Note 3)

Operating outside the official religious hierarchy, they didn’t beg but worked various jobs to earn their daily bread. The same goes for the Brothers of the Common Life, except that for them, books were at the center of all activities. Thus, apart from teaching, the copying and production of books represented a major source of income while allowing spreading the word to the many.

Lay Brothers and Sisters focused on education and their priests on preaching. Thanks to the scriptorium and printing houses, their literature and music will spread everywhere.

Windesheim

To protect the movement from unfair attacks and criticism, Radewijns founded a congregation of canons regular obeying the Augustinian rule.

In Windesheim, between Zwolle and Deventer, on land belonging to Berthold ten Hove, one of the members, a first cloister is erected. A second one, for women this time, is built in Diepenveen near Arnhem. The construction of Windesheim took several years and a group of brothers lived temporarily on the building site, in huts.

Extension of Windesheim chapters

In 1399 Johannes van Kempen, who had stayed at Groote’s house in Deventer, became the first prior of the cloister of Mont Saint-Agnès near Zwolle and gave the movement new momentum. From Zwolle, Deventer and Windesheim, the new recruits spread all over the Netherlands and Northern Europe to found new branches of the movement.

In 1412, the congregation had 16 cloisters and their number reached 97 in 1500: 84 priories for men and 13 for women. To this must be added a large number of cloisters for canonesses which, although not formally associated with the Windesheim Congregation, were run by rectors trained by them.

Windesheim was not recognized by the Bishop of Utrecht until 1423 and in Belgium, Groenendael, associated with the Red Cloister and Korsendonc, wanted to be part of it as early as 1402.

Thomas a Kempis, Cusanus and Erasmus

Statue of Thomas a Kempis in the English Convent of Brugge.

Johannes van Kempen was the brother of the famous Thomas a Kempis (1379-1471). The latter, trained in Windesheim, animated the cloister of Mont Saint-Agnès near Zwolle and was one of the towering figures of the movement for seventy years. In addition to a biography he wrote of Groote and his account of the movement, his Imitatione Christi (The Imitation of Christ) became the most widely read work in history after the Bible.

Both Rudolf Agricola (1444-1485) and Alexander Hegius (1433-1498), two of Erasmus’ tutors during his training in Deventer, were direct pupils of Thomas a Kempis. The Latin School of Deventer, of which Hegius was rector, was the first school in Northern Europe to teach the ancient Greek language to children.

Dionysisus the Carthusian.

While no formal prove exists, it is tempting to believe that Cusanus (1401-1464), who protected Agricola and, in his last will, via his Bursa Cusanus, offered a scholarship for the training of orphans and poor students of the Brothers of the Common Life in Deventer, was also trained by this humanist network.

What is known is that when Cusanus came in 1451 to the Netherlands to put the affairs of the Church in order, he traveled with his friend Denis the Carthusian (van Rijkel) (1402-1471), a disciple of Ruusbroec, whom he commissioned to carry on this task.

A native of Limburg, trained at the famous Cele school in Zwolle, Dionysius the Carthusian also became the confessor of the Duke of Burgundy and is thought to be the “theological advisor” of the Duke’s ambassador and court painter, Jan Van Eyck. (Note 4)

Gansfort

Wessel Gansfort (1419-1489), another exceptional figure of this movement was at the service of the Greek Cardinal Bessarion, the main collaborator of Nicolas of Cusa (Cusanus) at the Council of Ferrara-Florence of 1437. Gansfort, after attending the Brothers’ school in Groningen, was also trained by Joan Cele‘s Latin school in Zwolle.

The same goes for the first and only Dutch pope, Adrianus VI, who was trained in the same school before completing his training with Hegius in Deventer. This pope was very open to Erasmus’ reformist ideas… before arriving in Rome.

Hegius, in a letter to Gansfort, which he calls Lux Mundi (Light of the World), wrote:

« I send you, most honorable lord, the homilies of John Chrysostom. I hope that you will enjoy reading them, since the golden words have always been more pleasing to you than the pieces of this metal. As you know, I went to the library of Cusanus. There I found some books that I didn’t know existed (…) Farewell, and if I can do you a favor, let me know and consider it done.”

Rembrandt

A quick look on Rembrandt’s intellectual training indicates that he too was a late product of this educational epic. In 1609, Rembrandt, barely three years old, entered elementary school where, like other boys and girls of his generation, he learned to read, write and… draw.

The school opened at 6 in the morning, at 7 in the winter, and closes at 7 in the evening. Classes begin with prayer, reading and discussion of a passage from the Bible followed by the singing of psalms. Here Rembrandt acquired an elegant writing style and much more than a rudimentary knowledge of the Gospels.

The Netherlands wanted to survive. Its leaders take advantage of the twelve-year truce (1608-1618) to fulfill their commitment to the public interest.

In doing so, the Netherlands at the beginning of the XVIIth century became the first country in the world where everyone had the chance to learn to read, write, calculate, sing and draw.

This universal educational system, no matter what its shortcomings, available to both rich and poor, boys and girls alike, stands as the secret behind the Dutch « Golden Century ». This high level of education also created those generations of active Dutch emigrants a century later in the American Revolution.

While others started secondary school at the age of twelve, Rembrandt entered the Leyden Latin School at the age of 7. There, the students, apart from rhetoric, logic and calligraphy, learn not only Greek and Latin, but also foreign languages such as English, French, Spanish or Portuguese. Then, in 1620, at the age of 14, with no laws restricting young talents, Rembrandt enrolled in University. The subject he chose was not Theology, Law, Science or Medicine, but… Literature.

Did he want to add to his knowledge of Latin the mastery of Greek or Hebrew philology, or possibly Chaldean, Coptic or Arabic? After all, Arabic/Latin dictionaries were already being published in Leiden at a time the city was becoming a major printing center in the world.

Thus, one realizes that the Netherlands and Belgium, first with Ruusbroec and Groote and later with Erasmus and Rembrandt, made an essential contribution in the not so distant past to the kind of humanism that can raise today humanity to its true dignity.

Hence, failing to extend our influence here, clearly seems to me something in the realm of the impossible.

The author, Karel Vereycken during a visit to the tomb of Thomas a Kempis on the Agnietenberg near Zwolle.

Footnotes:

  1. Geert Groote, who discovered Ruusbroec’s work during his spiritual retreat at the Carthusian monastery of Monnikshuizen, near Arnhem, has translated at least three of his works into Latin. He sent The Book of the Spiritual Tabernacle to the Cistercian Cloister of Altencamp and his friends in Amsterdam. The Spiritual Marriage of Ruusbroec being under attack, Groote personally defends it. Thus, thanks to his authority, Ruusbroec’s works are copied in number and carefully preserved. Ruusbroec’s teaching became popularized by the writings of the Modern Devotion and especially by the Imitation of Christ.
  2. At the beginning of the 13th century the Beguines were accused of heresy and persecuted, except… in the Burgundian Netherlands. In Flanders, they are cleared and obtain official status. In reality, they benefit from the protection of two important women: Jeanne and Margaret of Constantinople, Countess of Flanders. They organized the foundation of the Beguinages of Louvain (1232), Gent (1234), Antwerp (1234), Kortrijk (1238), Ypres (1240), Lille (1240), Zoutleeuw (1240), Bruges (1243), Douai (1245), Geraardsbergen (1245), Hasselt (1245), Diest (1253), Mechelen (1258) and in 1271 it was Jan I, Count of Flanders, in person, who deposited the statutes of the great Beguinage of Brussels. In 1321, the Pope estimated the number of Beguines at 200,000.
  3. The platonic poetry of the Beguine, Hadewijch of Antwerp (XIIIth Century) has a decisive influence on Jan van Ruusbroec.
  4. It is significant that the first book printed in Flanders in 1473, by Erasmus’ friend and printer Dirk Martens, is precisely a work of Denis the Carthusian.
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La Renaissance du Nord : l’histoire des Frères de la Vie Commune

windes

Brasserie de l’ancien cloître de Windesheim, transformée en église. Joan Cele, ami de Groote et instituteur de génie, est enterré ici près de ces amis.

Présentation de Karel Vereycken, fondateur d’Agora Erasmus, du 10 septembre 2011, lors d’une rencontre amicale avec des membres du LaRouche Studiegroep Nederland (Groupe d’études larouchistes des Pays-Bas)

Le système financier actuel est en faillite et sombrera dans les jours, semaines ou mois à venir si rien n’est fait pour en finir avec le paradigme formé par la mondialisation financière, le monétarisme et le libre-échange.

Sortir « par le haut » de cette crise implique d’offrir sans tarder une retraite anticipée au président Barack Obama et une scission des banques (principe du Glass-Steagall Act), levier indispensable pour recréer un véritable système de crédit en opposition avec le système monétariste. Il s’agit de garantir de vrais investissements engendrant des richesses physiques et humaines, grâce à de grands projets et des emplois hautement qualifiés et bien rémunérés.

Peut-on le faire ? Oui, on le peut ! Cependant, le gigantesque défi à relever n’est ni économique, ni politique, mais culturel et éducationnel : comment jeter les fondations d’une nouvelle Renaissance, comment effectuer un tournant civilisationnel qui nous éloigne du pessimisme vert et malthusien vers une culture qui se fixe comme mission sacrée de développer pleinement les pouvoirs créateurs de chaque individu, qu’il soit ici, en Afrique, ou ailleurs.

Existe-t-il un précédent historique ? Oui, et surtout ici, d’où je vous parle ce matin (Naarden, aux Pays-Bas, nda) avec une certaine émotion. Elle m’envahit sans doute parce que j’ai un sens relativement précis du rôle qu’ont pu jouer plusieurs personnages de cette région où nous sommes réunis ce matin et comment, au XIVe siècle, ils ont fait de Deventer, Zwolle et Windesheim un « accélérateur de neurones » en quelque sorte, pour la toute la culture européenne et mondiale.

Permettez-moi de vous résumer l’histoire de ce mouvement de clercs laïcs et enseignants : les Frères et sœurs de la Vie Commune, un mouvement qui a enfanté notre Erasme de Rotterdam chéri, ce génie humaniste dont nous avons emprunté le nom pour créer le mouvement politique larouchiste en Belgique.

Comme très souvent, tout commence avec un individu décidant, autant qu’humainement possible, de mettre fin à ses manquements et renonçant à ces « petits compromis » qui finissent par rendre esclave la plupart d’entre nous. Ce faisant, cet individu apparaît rapidement comme un dirigeant « naturel ». Vous voulez devenir un leader ? Commencez par faire le ménage dans vos propres affaires avant de donner des leçons aux autres !

Geert Groote, le fondateur

Geert Groote, fondateur des Frères et Sœurs de la Vie Commune.

Le père spirituel des Frères est Geert Groote, né en 1340 et fils d’un riche marchand de textile à Deventer, qui à cette époque, tout comme Zwolle, Kampen et Roermond, sont des villes prospères de la Ligue hanséatique.

En 1345, suite au krach financier international, la peste noire se répand à travers toute l’Europe et arrive aux Pays-Bas vers 1349-50. Entre un tiers et la moitié de la population y laisse la vie et, d’après certaines sources, Groote perd ses deux parents. Il abhorre l’hypocrisie des hordes de flagellants qui envahissent les rues et prônera par la suite une spiritualité moins voyante, plus intérieure.

Groote a du talent pour les choses intellectuelles et on l’envoi rapidement étudier à Paris. En 1358, à dix-huit ans, il obtient le titre de Maître ès arts, alors que les statuts de l’Université stipulent que l’âge minimum requis est de vingt et un ans. Il reste huit ans à Paris où il enseigne, tout en faisant quelques excursions à Cologne et Prague. Pendant ce temps-là, il assimile tout ce qu’on peut savoir de la philosophie, de la théologie, de la médecine, du droit canonique et de l’astronomie. Il apprend également le latin, le grec et l’hébreu et il est considéré comme l’un des plus grands érudits de l’époque.

Vers 1362, il devient chanoine de la cathédrale d’Aix-la-Chapelle et en 1371 d’Utrecht. A 27 ans il est envoyé comme diplomate à Cologne et à la Cour d’Avignon afin de régler avec le pape Urbain V le différent qui oppose la ville de Deventer à l’évêque d’Utrecht. Qu’il ait rencontré à l’occasion l’humaniste italien Pétrarque qui s’y trouvait n’est pas impossible.

Plein de connaissance et de succès, Groote a la grosse tête. Ses meilleurs amis, conscients de ses talents lui suggèrent gentiment de se détacher de l’obsession du « paradis terrestre ». Le premier est Guillaume de Salvarvilla, le maître de cœur de Notre-Dame de Paris. Le deuxième est Henri Eger de Kalkar (1328-1408) avec qui il a partagé les bancs de la Sorbonne.

En 1374, Groote tombe gravement malade. Pourtant, le prêtre de Deventer refuse de lui administrer les derniers sacrements tant qu’il refuse de brûler certains des livres en sa possession. Craignant pour sa vie, il se résout alors à brûler sa collection de livres sur la magie noire. Enfin, il se sent mieux et guérit. Il renonce également à vivre dans le confort et le lucre grâce à des emplois fictifs qui lui permettaient de s’enrichir sans trop travailler.

Après cette conversion radicale, il prend de bonnes résolutions. Dans ses Conclusions et résolutions il écrit :

C’est à la gloire, à l’honneur et au service de Dieu que je me propose d’ordonner ma vie, ainsi qu’au salut de mon âme. (…) En premier lieu, ne désirer aucun autre bénéfice et ne mettre désormais mon espoir et mon attente dans un quelconque profit temporel. Plus j’aurai des biens, plus j’en voudrai sans doute davantage. Car selon l’Eglise primitive, tu ne peux avoir plusieurs bénéfices. (…) Parmi toutes les sciences des gentils [païens], les sciences morales sont les moins détestables : plusieurs d’entre elles sont souvent utiles et profitables tant pour soi-même que pour enseigner les autres. Les plus sages, comme Socrate et Platon, ramenaient toute la philosophie à l’éthique. Et s’ils ont parlé de choses élevées, ils les ont transmises (selon saint Augustin et ma propre expérience) en les moralisant avec légèreté et de façon figurée, afin que la morale transparaisse toujours dans la connaissance…

Groote entreprend ensuite une retraite spirituelle chez les Chartreux de Monnikshuizen près d’Arnhem où il se consacre à la prière et à l’étude. Après un séjour de trois ans, le prieur, son ami parisien Eger de Kalkar lui dit : « Au lieu de rester cloîtré ici, tu pourras faire un plus grand bien en allant prêcher dans le monde, une activité pour laquelle Dieu t’a donné un grand talent ».

Jan van Ruusbroec, l’inspirateur

Le mystique flamand Jan van Ruusbroec, une source d’inspiration pour Groote.

Groote relève le défi. Cependant, avant de passer à l’action, il décide d’effectuer en 1378 un dernier voyage à Paris pour se procurer les livres dont il aura besoin.

D’après Pomerius, il entreprend ce déplacement avec son ami de Zwolle, l’instituteur Joan Cele (vers 1350-1417), fondateur historique de l’excellent système d’enseignement public néerlandais, les Latijnse School (Ecoles de latin).

Sur le chemin de Paris, ils rendent visite à Jan van Ruusbroec (1293-1381), un mystique flamand installé au prieuré de Groenendael en bordure de la Forêt de Soignes près de Bruxelles.

Groote, vivant encore dans la crainte de Dieu et des autorités, essaye initialement de rendre « plus présentable » certains écrits du vieux sage tout en reconnaissant Ruusbroec plus proche que lui du Seigneur.

Dans une lettre à la communauté de Groenendael, il sollicite ainsi la prière du prieur : « Je tiens à me recommander à la prière de votre prévôt et prieur. Pour le temps de l’éternité, je voudrais être « l’escabeau du prieur », tant que mon âme lui est unie dans l’amour et le respect. » (Note 1)

De retour à Deventer, Groote se concentre sur l’étude et la prédication. D’abord il se présente à l’évêque pour être ordonné diacre. Dans cette fonction, il obtient le droit de prêcher dans tout l’évêché d’Utrecht (en gros, toute la partie des Pays-Bas d’aujourd’hui située au nord des grands fleuves, à l’exception des environs de Groningen). D’abord il prêche à Deventer, ensuite à Zwolle, Kampen, Zutphen et plus tard à Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda et Delft.

Son succès est si éclatant qu’au sein de l’église la jalousie se fait ressentir. Par ailleurs, avec le chaos provoqué par le grand schisme (1378 à 1417) installant deux papes à la tête de l’Eglise, les croyants cherchent de nouvelles voies.

Dès 1374, Groote offre une partie de la maison de ses parents pour y accueillir un groupe de femmes pieuses. Dotée d’un règlement, la première maison de sœurs est née à Deventer. Il les nomme « Sœurs de la Vie Commune », un concept développé dans plusieurs œuvres de Ruusbroec, notamment dans le paragraphe final De la pierre brillante :

L’homme qui est envoyé de cette hauteur vers le monde ci-bas, est plein de vérité, et riche de toutes les vertus. Et il ne cherche pas le sien, mais l’honneur de celui qui l’a envoyé. Et c’est pourquoi il est droit et véridique dans toute chose. Et il possède un fond riche et bienveillant fondé dans la richesse de Dieu. Et ainsi il doit toujours transmettre l’esprit de Dieu à ceux qui en ont besoin ; car la fontaine vivante du Saint-Esprit n’est pas une richesse qu’on peut gâcher. Et il est un instrument volontaire de Dieu avec lequel le Seigneur travaille comme Il veut, et comment Il veut. Et il ne s’en vente nullement mais laisse l’honneur à Dieu. Et pour cela il reste prêt à tout faire que Dieu ordonne ; et de faire et de tolérer avec force tout ce que Dieu lui confie. Et ainsi il a une vie commune ; car pour lui, voir [contempler] et travailler lui sont égales, car dans les deux choses il est parfait .

Florens Radewijns, l’organisateur

Ecole Latine, gravure du XVIe siècle.

Suite à l’un de ses premiers prêches, Groote recrute Florens Radewijns (1350-1400). Natif d’Utrecht, ce dernier a reçu sa formation à Prague où, lui aussi à l’âge précoce de 18 ans, reçoit le titre de Magister Artium.

Groote l’envoi ensuite à Worms pour y être consacré prêtre. En 1380 Groote s’installe avec une dizaine d’élèves dans la maison de Radewijns à Deventer ; elle sera ultérieurement connue comme le « Heer Florenshuis », première maison des Frères et surtout sa base d’opérations.

Quand il décède à son tour de la peste en 1384, Radewijns décide d’étendre le mouvement qui devient les Frères et Sœurs de la Vie Commune. Rapidement, ils se nommeront la Devotio Moderna (Dévotion moderne).

Livres et béguinages

Béguinage de Courtrai.

On peut établir un certain nombre de parallèles avec la mouvance des Béguines qui prospère à partir du XIIIe siècle. (Note 2)

Les premières béguines sont des femmes indépendantes, vivant seules (sans homme ni règle), animées d’une spiritualité profonde et osant se risquer à l’aventure énorme d’un rapport personnel avec Dieu.  (Note 3)

Sans lien spécial avec la hiérarchie religieuse, elle ne mendient pas mais travaillent pour gagner leur pain quotidien. Idem pour les Frères de la Vie Commune, sauf que pour eux, les livres sont au centre de toutes leurs activités.

Ainsi, à part l’enseignement, la copie et la production de livres représentent une source majeure de revenus tout en permettant de répandre la bonne parole au plus grand nombre. Les Frères et Sœurs laïcs se concentrent sur l’éducation et leurs prêtres sur la prédication. Grâce au scriptorium et aux imprimeries, leur littérature et leur musique se répandront partout.

Congrégation de Windesheim

Pour mettre le mouvement à l’abri d’attaques et de critiques injustes, Radewijns fonde une congrégation de chanoines réguliers obéissant à la règle augustinienne. A Windesheim, entre Zwolle et Deventer, sur un terrain appartenant à Berthold ten Hove, un des membres, un premier cloître est érigé. Un deuxième, pour femmes cette fois, voit le jour à Diepenveen près d’Arnhem. La construction de Windesheim prend plusieurs années et un groupe de frères vit temporairement sur le chantier, dans des huttes.

Quand en 1399 Johannes van Kempen, qui a habité chez Groote à Deventer, devient le premier prieur du cloître du Mont Saint-Agnès près de Zwolle, le mouvement prend un nouvel élan. A partir de Zwolle, Deventer et Windesheim, les nouvelles recrues se répandent sur tous les Pays-Bas et l’Europe du nord pour y fonder de nouvelles antennes du mouvement.

En 1412, la congrégation possède 16 cloîtres et leur nombre atteint 97 en 1500 : 84 prieurés pour hommes et 13 pour femmes. A cela il faut ajouter un grand nombre de cloîtres pour chanoinesses qui, bien que n’étant pas formellement associé à la Congrégation de Windesheim, sont dirigés par des recteurs formés par elle. Windesheim n’est reconnue par l’évêque d’Utrecht qu’en 1423 et Groenendael, associé avec le Rouge Cloître et Korsendonc, désire en faire partie dès 1402.

Thomas a Kempis, Cues et Erasme

Statue de Thomas a Kempis au English Convent de Bruges.

Johannes van Kempen n’est autre que le frère du très renommé Thomas a Kempis (1379-1471). Ce dernier, formé à Windesheim, anime le cloître du Mont Saint-Agnès près de Zwolle et est une des grandes figures du mouvement pendant soixante-dix ans.

A sa biographie de Groote et son récit du mouvement s’ajoute surtout l’Imitatione Christi (L’imitation du Christ), œuvre la plus lue de l’histoire après la Bible.

Tant Rudolf Agricola (1444-1485) qu’Alexander Hegius (1433-1498), deux des précepteurs d’Erasme lors de sa formation à Deventer, sont des élèves directs de Thomas a Kempis. L’Ecole Latine de Deventer dont Hegius fut recteur est la première école d’Europe du nord à enseigner le Grec ancien aux enfants.

Denis le char

Certains pensent que ce tableau de Petrus Christus représente l’ami de Nicolas de Cues, Denis le Chartreux. La mouche sur le bord du cadre est ici symbole de la nature éphémère de l’existence humaine.

On pense généralement que Nicolas de Cues (1401-1464), qui protégeait Agricola et qui, par sa Bursa Cusanus offrait une bourse pour la formation d’orphelins et d’étudiants pauvres, a également été formé par les Frères de la Vie Commune.

Quand le cusain est envoyé en 1451 aux Pays-Bas pour mettre de l’ordre dans les affaires de l’Eglise, il voyage avec Denis le Chartreux (van Rijkel) (1402-1471), un disciple de Ruusbroec qu’il charge de mener cette tâche à bien. Natif du Limbourg, il fut lui aussi formé par la fameuse école de Joan Cele à Zwolle. [4]

Wessel Gansfoort

Wessel Gansfoort (1419-1489), autre figure exceptionnelle de cette mouvance est au service du cardinal grec Bessarion, le principal collaborateur de Nicolas de Cues lors du Concile de Ferrare-Florence de 1437.

Gansfoort, après avoir suivi l’école des Frères à Groningen, est lui aussi formé par l’école Latine de Joan Cele à Zwolle.

Idem pour le premier et unique pape néerlandais, Adrianus VI, formé dans la même école avant de parfaire une formation avec Hegius à Deventer.

Ce pape se montra très ouvert aux idées réformatrices d’Erasme… avant d’arriver à Rome.

Hegius, dans une lettre envoyé à Gansfoort qu’il qualifie de Lux Mundi (lumière du monde), écrit :

Je vous envoie, très honorable seigneur, les homélies de Jean Crysostome. J’espère que leur lecture vous plaira, puisque que les paroles d’or vous ont toujours été plus agréable que les pièces de ce métal. Comme vous le savez, je suis allé dans la bibliothèque du cusain. Là, j’ai trouvé des livres dont j’ignorais totalement l’existence (…) Adieu, et si je peux vous rendre un service, faites-le moi savoir et considérez la chose faite.

Rembrandt van Rijn

Rembrandt van Rijn, un bon élève de l’Ecole Latine de Leiden.

Un regard sur la formation de Rembrandt indique que lui aussi fut un produit tardif de cette épopée éducatrice. En 1609, Rembrandt, trois ans à peine, entre à l’école élémentaire, où, comme les autres garçons et filles de sa génération, il apprend à lire, à écrire et… à dessiner.

L’école ouvre à six heures du matin, à sept heures en hiver, pour fermer à sept heures du soir. Les cours commencent avec la prière, la lecture et la discussion d’un passage de la Bible suivi du chant de psaumes. Ici Rembrandt acquiert une écriture élégante et bien plus qu’une connaissance rudimentaire des Évangiles.

Les Pays-Bas veulent survivre. Ses dirigeants profitent de la trêve de douze ans pour accomplir leur engagement envers l’Intérêt général. Ce faisant, les Pays-Bas du début du dix-septième siècle sont peut-être le premier pays au monde où chacun a la chance de pouvoir apprendre à lire, écrire, calculer, chanter et dessiner. Ce système éducationnel universel, peu importe ses défauts, à la disposition des riches comme des pauvres, des garçons que des filles, est le secret à l’origine du « Siècle d’or » Hollandais. Ce haut niveau d’instruction créa aussi ces générations d’émigrés hollandais actifs un siècle plus tard dans la révolution américaine.

Tandis que d’autres entamaient l’école secondaire à douze ans, Rembrandt entre à l’Ecole Latine de Leyden à sept ans.

Là, les élèves, hormis la rhétorique, la logique et la calligraphie, n’apprennent pas seulement le grec et le latin, mais aussi des langues étrangères, comme l’anglais, le français, l’espagnol ou le portugais. Ensuite, en 1620, à quatorze ans, aucune loi ne faisant obstacle aux jeunes talents, Rembrandt s’inscrit à l’université.

L’auteur visitant la stèle commémorant Thomas a Kempis, au Mont Saint-Agnès de Zwolle.

Son choix n’est pas la théologie, le droit, la science ou la médecine, mais… la littérature.

Voulait-il ajouter à sa connaissance du latin la maîtrise de la philologie grecque ou hébraïque, ou éventuellement le chaldéen, le copte ou l’arabe ?

Après tout, on publiait déjà à Leyden des dictionnaires Arabe/Latin à une époque où la ville devient un centre majeur de l’imprimerie dans le monde.

Ainsi, on se rend compte que les Pays-Bas et la Belgique, avec Ruusbroec et Groote d’abord puis avec Erasme et Rembrandt ensuite, ont fourni dans un passé pas si lointain, une contribution essentielle au type d’humanisme qui peut élever l’humanité à sa véritable dignité.

Échouer à étendre ici notre mouvement me semble donc du domaine de l’impossible.


NOTES

  1. Geert Groote, qui a découvert l’œuvre de Ruusbroec lors de sa retraite spirituelle à la chartreuse de Monnikshuizen, près d’Arnhem, a traduit au moins trois de ses œuvres en Latin. Il envoie Le livre du Tabernacle spirituel aux cisterciens d’Altencamp et à ses amis d’Amsterdam. Le Mariage spirituel de Ruusbroec étant attaqué, Groote en prend personnellement la défense. Ainsi, grâce à son autorité les œuvres de Ruusbroec sont copiées en nombre et soigneusement conservées. L’enseignement de Ruusbroec est vulgarisé par les écrits de la Dévotion moderne et surtout par l’Imitation du Christ.
  2. Au début du XIIIe siècle les Béguines sont accusé d’hérésie et persécuté, sauf… aux Pays-bas bourguignons. En Flandres, elles sont innocentées et obtiennent un statut officiel. En réalité, elles profitent de la protection de deux femmes importantes : Jeanne et Marguerite de Constantinople, comtesses de Flandres. Elles organiseront la fondation des Béguinages de Louvain (1232), Gent (1234), Anvers (1234), Courtrai (1238), Ypres (1240), Lille (1240), Zoutleeuw (1240), Bruges (1243), Douai (1245), Geraardsbergen (1245), Hasselt (1245), Mons (1248), Anderlecht (1252), Breda (1252), Diest (1253), Lierre (1258), Tongres (1257), Malines (1258), Haarlem (1262) et en 1271, c’est Jan I, comte de Flandres, en personne, qui dépose les statuts du grand béguinage de Bruxelles. En 1321, le Pape estime le nombre de béguines à 200 000.
  3. Le platonisme poétique de la béguine Hadewijch d’Anvers a une influence certaine sur Jan van Ruusbroec.
  4. Il est d’ailleurs significatif que le premier livre imprimé en Flandres en 1473, par l’ami et imprimeur d’Erasme Dirk Martens, est précisément une œuvre de Denis le Chartreux.
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