Catégorie : Etudes historiques, politiques et scientifiques
Oбщественность афганистана протестует против юнеско
Париж, февраль 2024 г. – В четверг, 22 февраля, с 10:00 до 13:00 по центральноевропейскому времени члены и сторонники Международного института Шиллера, основанного и возглавляемого Хельгой Зепп-Ларуш, организовали мирный пикет перед одним из главных зданий штаб-квартиры ЮНЕСКО в Париже (улица Миоллис, 1, Париж 75015). Обращение (см. ниже), одобренное как афганцами, так и известными деятелями науки и культуры четырех континентов, было представлено Генеральному секретарю и другим официальным ЮНЕСКО.
Как это начиналось
После весьма успешной конференции по восстановлению Афганистана, проведенной в ноябре прошлого года Центром исследований и разработок Ибн Сины в Кабуле, группа ведущих археологов Афганской академии наук (ASA), проведя беседу с организаторами и приглашенными экспертами Института Шиллера, предложила обратиться с совместным призывом к ЮНЕСКО и западным правительствам «снять санкции против сотрудничества в области культурного наследия».
Обращение
«Мы глубоко сожалеем, — говорится в обращении, — что Коллективный Запад, плача крокодиловыми слезами по поводу уничтожения мирового культурного наследия, наложил избирательный запрет на научное сотрудничество со странами, ошибочно признанными «противниками его правил и ценностей». Полное замораживание всякого сотрудничества в области археологии между Францией, Сирией и Афганистаном — лишь один из примеров этой трагедии».
«Резкое пренебрежение международными культурными фондами и благотворительными организациями, сотрудничающими с Афганистаном, отсутствие достаточных средств в области защиты культурного наследия и политическая ангажированность международных организаций культурного наследия поставили Афганистан под серьезную угрозу», — подчеркивается в петиции.
В частности, «ЮНЕСКО, которая должна выступать против любой новой формы «культурного и научного апартеида», неоднократно усугубляла ситуацию, политизируя вопросы, выходящие за рамки ее полномочий».
В заключение подписанты призывают:
«Международное сообщество должно немедленно положить конец этой форме «коллективного наказания», которая порождает страдания и несправедливость, способствует невежеству и ставит под угрозу способность человечества к взаимному уважению и пониманию».
Живой дух Афганистана
На сегодняшний день собрано более 550 подписей, в основном от афганских граждан, мужчин (370) и женщин (140), чей социальный и профессиональный статус указывает на то, что они действительно представляют «живой дух нации».
Среди подписавшихся: 62 преподавателя университета, 27 докторов, 25 преподавателей, 25 членов Афганской академии наук, 23 коммерсанта, 16 активистов-правозащитников, 16 инженеров, 10 руководителей и деканов частных и государственных университетов, 7 политических аналитиков, 6 журналистов, 5 прокуроров, несколько лидеров бизнеса и десятки квалифицированных специалистов из разных отраслей.
Международная поддержка
На четырех континентах (Европа, Азия, Америка, Африка) ведущие археологи, ученые, исследователи, члены Академии наук, историки и музыканты из более чем 20 стран приветствовали и подписали это обращение.
Первым подписал документ итальянский профессор Пино Арлакки, бывший член Европейского парламента и бывший глава Управления ООН по наркотикам и преступности (УНП ООН). Отмеченный наградами американский режиссер Оливер Стоун – один из недавних подписантов.
Во Франции, Сирии, Италии, Великобритании и России среди подписавших можно найти научных сотрудников, страдающих от последствий того, что некоторые называют «новой культурной холодной войной». Несмотря на различие во мнениях по многим вопросам, подписавшие стороны едины в главной идее этого призыва: чтобы наука развивалась, все участники, вне идеологических, политических и религиозных разногласий и вдали от геополитической логики «блоков», должны иметь возможность свободно обмениваться информацией и сотрудничать, в частности, для защиты исторического и культурного наследия человечества.
В подтверждение твердой приверженности этой позиции афганских властей, петиция была также одобрена заместителем министра иностранных дел Афганистана, министром культуры и искусств и министром сельского хозяйства, а также старшими должностными лицами министерств высшего образования, водных ресурсов и энергетики, горнодобывающей промышленности, финансов и другими.
«46-я сессия Комитета всемирного наследия ЮНЕСКО, которая пройдет в Нью-Дели в июле этого года, дает ЮНЕСКО возможность объявить о полном возврате Афганистана к сотрудничеству в области всемирного наследия, если наш голос будет услышан», — говорит Карел Верейкен из Парижского комитета по всемирному наследию, Шиллеровский институт. «Мы, конечно, не упустим возможность передать это обращение Его Превосходительству Вишалу В. Шарме, постоянному представителю Индии при ЮНЕСКО, недавно назначенному организатором 46-й сессии в Дели».
Для получения подробной информации (англ., франц., голл. языки):
Карел Верейкен, Институт Шиллера, Париж
00 33 (0)6 19 26 69 38
Полный текст обращения
Международное обращение об отмене санкций против сотрудничества в области культурного наследия
После международной конференции по восстановлению Афганистана, организованной Центром исследований и разработок Ибн Сины в Кабуле в начале ноября 2023 года, группа исследователей подала следующую петицию:
Мы, нижеподписавшиеся, исследователи и эксперты в области истории цивилизаций, культурного наследия, археологии, антропологии, социологии и во многих других областях, а также другие просвещенные граждане мира из Афганистана, Сирии, России, Китая и других стран, обращаемся со следующим призывом:
1) Мы глубоко сожалеем, что Коллективный Запад, плача крокодиловыми слезами по поводу уничтожения мирового культурного наследия, наложил избирательный запрет на научное сотрудничество со странами, ошибочно признанными «противниками его правил и ценностей». Полное замораживание всякого сотрудничества в области археологии между Францией, Сирией и Афганистаном является лишь одним из примеров этой трагедии.
2) Мы просим обратить особое внимание на случай Афганистана. Соседние страны, национальные и международные учреждения, а также страны, участвующие в международных конвенциях по защите культурного и природного наследия, вовлечены в сотрудничество в области охраны объектов культурного наследия и артефактов, а также предотвращения их контрабанды и уничтожения. Поэтому предполагается, что в сложившейся ситуации они в полной мере сыграют свою роль в защите культурного наследия Афганистана в соответствии с международными законами и конвенциями. Однако резкое пренебрежение международными культурными фондами и благотворительными организациями, сотрудничающими с Афганистаном, отсутствие достаточных средств в области защиты культурного наследия и политическая ангажированность международных организаций культурного наследия поставили Афганистан под серьезную угрозу. Несомненно, непризнание афганского правительства послужило ослаблению внимания со стороны культурных фондов. Учитывая вышеизложенное, мы ожидаем, что эти международные институты возобновят свою полную поддержку в защите как материального, так и нематериального культурного наследия Афганистана.
3) Мы сожалеем, что ЮНЕСКО, которая должна выступать против любой новой формы «культурного и научного апартеида», неоднократно усугубляла ситуацию, политизируя вопросы, выходящие за рамки ее полномочий.
4) Поэтому мы призываем международное сообщество немедленно положить конец этой форме «коллективного наказания», которая порождает страдания и несправедливость, способствует невежеству и ставит под угрозу способность человечества к взаимному уважению и пониманию.
Прогресс научных знаний в дружественной атмосфере, позволяющей всем делиться ими, по самой своей природе нужен всем и каждому и лежит в основе мирного существования.
ПОДПИСИ:
А. ОТ ГРАЖДАН АФГАНИСТАНА:
– Хусейн Бурхани, археолог, нумизмат, Афганистан;
– Кетаб Хан Файзи, археолог, директор Академии наук Международного центра кушанских исследований в Кабуле, Афганистан;
– Стора Ишамс Маяр, археолог, член Академии наук Международного центра кушанских исследований в Кабуле, главный редактор журнала упомянутого центра, Афганистан;
– Махмуд Ян Дрост, старший архитектор, руководитель охраны старых городов Афганистана, Министерство городского развития и жилищного строительства, Афганистан;
– Гулам Хайдар Кушкаки, археолог, доцент, Центр археологических исследований, Афганистан;
— Лайек Ахмади, археолог, бывший руководитель факультета археологии Бамианского университета, Афганистан;
– Шавкатулла Абед, руководитель аппарата Афганской академии наук, Афганистан;
– Сардар Гулам Али Балуш, глава Союза афганских белуджей, Афганистан;
– Дауд Азими Шинвари, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Германия;
– Абдул Фатах Рауфи, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
– Мирвайс Попал, дипломат, магистр, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Германия;
Б. ОТ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО СООБЩЕСТВА:
(Россия, Китай, США, Индонезия, Франция, Ангола, Германия, Турция, Италия, Великобритания, Мексика, Швеция, Иран, Бельгия, Аргентина, Чехия, Сирия, Конго Браззавиль, Йемен, Венесуэла, Пакистан, Испания, Канада, Демократическая Республика Республика Конго.)
– Его Превосходительство г-н Мохаммад Хомайун Азизи, посол Афганистана в Париже, ЮНЕСКО и ИСЕСКО, Франция;
— Хулио Бендезу-Сармьенто, научный сотрудник Национального научно-исследовательского центра (CNRS), археолог, специализирующийся на Центральной Азии; Бывший директор Делегации французских археологов в Афганистане (DAFA) (2014-2018), Франция;
– Инес Сафи, CNRS, исследователь в области теоретической нанофизики, Франция;
– Пьер Лериш, археолог, почетный директор по исследованиям CNRS-AOROC, научный руководитель исследовательской программы городской археологии эллинизированного Востока, Франция;
– Дубова Надежда Александровна, Институт этнологии и антропологии, доктор биологических наук, профессор исторических наук, руководитель Российско-Туркмено-Маргианской археологической экспедиции Российской академии наук (РАН), Россия;
— Александра Ванлин, археолог, специалист по буддийскому искусству Гандхары, исследователь, независимый научный консультант Гарвардской лаборатории FAS CAMLab, Франция;
– Раффаэле Бишоне, пенсионер, младший научный сотрудник, Consiglio Nazionale delle Recerche (CNR); бывший первый научный сотрудник CNR, бывший директор археологической миссии CNR в Восточном Иране (2009-2022), Италия;
— Сандра Жегги-Ришо, профессор, историк и археолог античности, Франция;
– доктор Разия Султанова, профессор Кембриджского университета, Великобритания;
– д-р Хумам Саад, археолог, Главное управление древностей и музеев, Сирия;
– Эстель Оттенвельтер, Институт археологии Чешской академии наук, естественных наук и археометрии, доктор, Чехия;
– Дидье Дестремо, писатель, дипломат, бывший посол Франции, президент Ассоциации франко-сирийской дружбы (AFS), Франция;
– Ван Фэн, профессор отделения Юго-Западной Азии Китайской академии социальных наук (CASS), Китай;
– д-р Энгин Бексач, профессор, факультет истории искусств Университета Тракии, Турция;
– Бруно Дрвески, профессор Национального института восточных языков и цивилизаций (INALCO), Франция;
– Маурицио Аббате, национальный президент Национального агентства культурной деятельности (ENAC), Италия;
– Патрисия Лалонд, бывший член Европейского парламента, вице-президент Геопрагмы, автор нескольких книг об Афганистане, Франция;
– Пино Арлакки, профессор социологии, бывший член Европейского парламента, бывший глава Управления ООН по наркотикам и преступности (УНП ООН), Италия;
– Оливер Стоун, кинорежиссер, продюсер и сценарист, обладатель премии «Оскар»;
– Грэм Э. Фуллер, писатель, бывший начальник отделения ЦРУ в Кабуле до 1978 года, бывший заместитель председателя Национального разведывательного совета (1986), США;
– Проф. Х.К. Фуад Аль Гаффари, советник премьер-министра Йемена по делам стран БРИКС, Йемен;
– Фархат Асиф, президент Института мира и дипломатических исследований (IPDS), Пакистан;
— Дурсун Йылдыз, директор Ассоциации гидрополитики, Турция;
– Ирен Нето, президент Фонда доктора Антонио Агостиньо Нето (FAAN), Ангола;
– Люк Рейхлер, профессор международной политики, Левенский университет, Бельгия;
– Пьер-Эммануэль Дюпон, эксперт и консультант в области международного публичного права, старший преподаватель Вандейского католического института, Франция;
— Ирен Родригес, Департамент истории, Факультет философии и литературы, Университет Буэнос-Айреса, Аргентина;
– Доктор Ририн Три Ратнасари, профессор, руководитель Центра халяльной индустрии и цифровизации, консультативный совет журнала исламского учета и бизнес-исследований, факультет экономики и бизнеса, Университет Эйрлангга, Индонезия;
– Д-р Клиффорд А. Киракофе, писатель, профессор международных отношений на пенсии, США;
– Бернар Бурден, священник-доминиканец, преподаватель философии и теологии, Парижский католический институт (ICP), Франция;
– Доктор юр. Вольфганг Биттнер, писатель, Геттинген, Германия;
– Анни Лакруа-Риз, почетный профессор современной истории, Университет Париж-Сите, Франция;
– Мохаммад Абдо Аль-Ибрагим, доктор филологии и литературы, преподаватель университета и бывший главный редактор газеты «Сирия Таймс», Сирия;
– Жан Брикмон, писатель, профессор физики на пенсии, Бельгия;
– Сайед Мохсин Аббас, журналист, телеведущий, политический аналитик и активист политической справедливости, Пакистан;
– Эдуардо Д. Гривз, доктор философии, профессор физики, Университет Симона Боливара, Каракас, Венесуэла;
– Дора Муанда, научный директор Недели науки и технологий в Киншасе, Демократическая Республика Конго;
– доктор Кристиан Паренти, профессор политической экономии, Колледж Джона Джея CUNY, Нью-Йорк, США;
– Диоген Сенни, президент Панафриканской лиги UMOJA, Конго Браззавиль;
– Вахид Сейед Хасан, журналист из Катара, бывший специальный корреспондент IRNA в Нью-Дели, бывший сотрудник Tehran Times, Иран;
– Ален Корвез, полковник (в отставке), консультант по международной стратегии, Франция;
– Стефано Читати, журналист, Италия;
– Гастон Пардо, журналист, выпускник Национального университета Мексики. Соучредитель ежедневной газеты «Либерасьон», Мексика;
– Ян Оберг, доктор философии, исследования мира и будущего, арт-фотограф, Лунд, Швеция.
– Жюли Переа, член городского совета города Пуссан (Эро), делегат по вопросам гендерного равенства и борьбы с домашним насилием, член комитета по гендерному равенству Sète Agglopole Méditerranée, Франция;
– Хельга Зепп-Ларуш, основатель и международный президент Института Шиллера, Германия;
– Абид Хусейн, независимый журналист, Пакистан;
– Анн Леттри, основательница и президент «Сада титанов», посол по культурным связям между Францией и Китаем в регионе Большого Парижа, Франция;
– Карел Верейкен, художник-гравер, искусствовед-любитель, Институт Шиллера, Франция;
– Карло Леви Минци, пианист, музыкант, Италия;
– Леена Малкки Бробьерг, оперная певица, Швеция;
– Жорж Бериахвили, пианист, музыковед, Франция;
– Жак Пауэлс, историк, Канада;
C. ОТ ПРЕДСТАВИТЕЛЕЙ ВЛАСТИ АФГАНИСТАНА:
– Шер Мохаммад Аббас Станикзай, заместитель министра иностранных дел Исламского Эмирата Афганистан (ИЭА);
– Мавлави Мухибулла Васик, руководитель канцелярии министра иностранных дел ИЭА;
– Валиулла Шахин, член Министерства иностранных дел, ИЭА;
– Саедулл Афгани, член Министерства иностранных дел, ИЭА;
– Хекматулла Заланд, член Министерства иностранных дел, ИЭА;
– Шафи Азам, Министерство иностранных дел, ИЭА;
– Атикулла Азизи, заместитель министра культуры и искусства Министерства информации и культуры ИЭА;
– Горзанг Фарханд, Министерство информации и культуры, ИЭА;
– Гулам Дастгир Хавари, советник Министерства высшего образования, ИЭА;
– Мавлави Рахмат Кака Зада, член Министерства внутренних дел, ИЭА;
– Мавлави Арефулла, сотрудник отдела внутренних дел ИЭА;
– Атаулла Омари, исполняющий обязанности министра сельского хозяйства ИЭА;
– Мавлави Хуссейн Ахмад, руководитель офиса Министерства сельского хозяйства ИЭА:
– Муса Нурзай, член Министерства сельского хозяйства, ИЭА;
– Мавлави Хусейн Ахмад, руководитель офиса Министерства сельского хозяйства ИЭА;
– Мавлави Шар Ака, глава Сельскохозяйственной администрации Кунара, ИЭА;
– Матиула Муджадиди, руководитель отдела коммуникаций Министерства финансов, ИЭА;
– Забиулла Нури, исполнительный директор Министерства финансов ИЭА;
– Акбар Вазизи, член Министерства финансов, ИЭА;
– Насрулла Эбрахими, аудитор Министерства финансов, ИЭА;
– Мир М. Харун Нури, представитель Министерства экономики, ИЭА;
– Абдул Кахар Махмоди, Министерство торговли, ИЭА;
– д-р Гулам Фарук Азам, советник Министерства водных ресурсов и энергетики (МЭ), ИЭА;
– Фейсал Махмуди, эксперт по содействию инвестициям, Министерство горнодобывающей промышленности и нефти, ИЭА;
– Рустам Хафиз Яр, Министерство транспорта, ИЭА;
– Кудратулла Абу Хамза, губернатор Кунара, ИЭА;
– Мансор Фарьяби, член муниципалитета Кабула, ИЭА;
– Мохаммад Седик Патман, бывший заместитель министра образования по академическим вопросам, ИЭА;
ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ СПИСОК
А. АФГАНИСТАН
• Джавад Никзад, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Доктор Акрам Азими, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Наджибулла Тотахель, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Гулам Фарук Ансари, профессор, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Имран Закерия, научный сотрудник Центра региональных исследований Академии наук Афганистана, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Субханулла Обаиди, доктор, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Али Шабиз, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Мавлави Вахид Амин, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Шар М. Амир Зада, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Сайед Рафиулла Халим, профессор, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Назар Мохмад Рагеб, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Али Сина Масуми, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Фейсал Махмуди, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Фатима Басир, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Мунира Аман, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Абдул Шакур, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Абдул Варис Эбад, сотрудник Министерства иностранных дел Афганистана;
• Вайсулла Седики, Центр исследований и разработок Ибн Сины, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Сайед Хаким Ария, сотрудник Министерства информации и культуры Афганистана;
• Наебуддин Экрами, сотрудник Министерства информации и культуры Афганистана;
• Латифа Азими, бывший сотрудник Министерства образования Афганистана;
• Латифа Нури, бывший сотрудник Министерства образования Афганистана;
• Хабибулла Хакани, сотрудник муниципалитета Кабула, Афганистан;
• Шафикулла Бабурзай, «Культурное наследие», Афганистан;
• Абдулла Камавал, «Культурное наследие», Афганистан;
• Абдул Рашид Лодин, «Культурное наследие», Афганистан;
• Асеф Нанг, «Культурное наследие», Афганистан;
• Авал Хан Шекиб, член Центра региональных исследований Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Мохаммад Анвар Фаяз, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Фархад Ахмади, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Файка Лахза Файзи, преподаватель, Академия наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Доктор Хаким Хайдар, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Рахимулла Харифал, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Шарифулла Дост, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Эшак Моманд, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Халил Рахман Барекзал, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Гулам Хайдар Кушкаки, преподаватель, Академия наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Гулам Наби Ханифи, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Марина Бахар, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Сайед Мухаидин Хашими, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Абдул Маджид Надим, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Элаха Максуди, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Хадим Ахмад Хакики, преподаватель Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Шахидулла Сафи, член Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Абдул Вахаб Хамдард, член Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Бурханулла Ниязи, член Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• М. Алам Эшак Зай, член Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Гулам Хасан Фарманд, член Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Залмай Хевад Мал, член Академии наук Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Абдул Рахман Аташ, глава Национальной компании развития Афганистана (NDC), Афганистан;
• Обайдулла, руководитель публичной библиотеки, Афганистан;
• Сайед Абдул Макдам, руководитель строительной компании Khawar, Афганистан;
• Заки Зарифи, руководитель компании «Зарифи», Афганистан;
• Джамшид Фаизи, руководитель компании Фаизи, Афганистан;
• М. Ясин Фарахман, руководитель Сельскохозяйственного центра, Афганистан;
• Мавлави Ник М. Никмал, руководитель отдела планирования технического управления, Афганистан;
• Абдул Вахид Рахими, член Банка Баштани, Афганистан;
• М. Дауд Мангал, руководитель авиакомпании Ariana Afghan Airlines, Афганистан;
• Мостафа Яри, предприниматель, Афганистан;
• Гарвал Рошан, руководитель Кабульского международного аэродрома, Афганистан;
• Экбал Мирзад, руководитель проекта «Новый город Кабул», Афганистан;
• Наджибулла Садик, вице-президент Афганской торгово-промышленной палаты (ACCI), Афганистан;
• М. Юнис Моманд, вице-президент ACCI, Афганистан;
• Ханжан Аликозай, член ACCI, Афганистан;
• Мавлави Абдул Рашид, муниципалитет Кабула, Афганистан;
• Атикулла Сафи, сотрудник муниципалитета Кабула, Афганистан;
• Абдул Джалил Сафи, сотрудник муниципалитета Кабула, Афганистан;
• Худжат Фазли, руководитель Харакат, Фонд инвестиционного климата Афганистана;
• Д-р Мехраб Хамиди, член Экономической комиссии, Афганистан;
• Хамид Пажвак, экономист, Афганистан;
• М. Аваз Али Ализай, экономист, Афганистан;
• Шамшад Омар, экономист, Афганистан;
• Хелай Фаханг, специалист по экономике, Афганистан;
• Марьям Аликозай, специалист по экономике, Афганистан;
• Дунья Фаруз, специалист по экономике, Афганистан;
• Соман Хамуш, специалист по экономике, Афганистан;
• Доктор Шокория Юсофи, бакалавр экономики, Афганистан;
• Шарифа Вардак, специалист по сельскому хозяйству, Афганистан;
• М. Асеф Давлат Шахи, специалист по химии, Афганистан;
• Паштана Хамами, специалист по статистике, Афганистан;
• Асма Карими, магистр менеджмента, Афганистан;
• Д-р Ахмад Заки Афганьяр, вице-президент комитета здравоохранения Герата, Афганистан;
• Доктор Хашем Мудабер, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Хекматулла Ариан, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Абдул Вахаб Рахмани, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Карима Рахимьяр, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Саида Басири, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Эмран Саиди, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Абдул Хади Давлатзай, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Гани Насери, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Нафиса Насери, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Абдул Гани Насери, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Мохаммад Юнис Шуайб, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Халима Акбари, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Манижа Эмак, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Шафик Шинвари, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Акбар Ян Фулад, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Хайдар Омар, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Эхсануддин Эхсан, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Абдул Вакил Матин, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Абдул Маталиб, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Азизи Амер, врач, Афганистан;
• Д-р Наср Саджар, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Хумайон Хемат, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Хумайра Фаяк, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Садруддин Таджик, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Абдул Баки Ахмад Зай, специалист по хирургии, Афганистан;
• Доктор Бекис Кохистани, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Нафиса Насири, врач, Афганистан;
• д-р Азиза Юсуф, руководитель больницы Малалай, Афганистан;
• Доктор Ясамин Хашими, врач, Афганистан;
• Д-р Зухал Наджими, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Ахмад Салем Седеки, врач, Афганистан;
• Доктор Фазель Раман, ветеринар, Афганистан;
• Хатера Анвари, здравоохранение, Афганистан;
• Раджина Нури, член Союза журналистов Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Саджад Никзад, журналист, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Сухайб Хасрат, журналист, Афганистан;
• Шар Ака Карими, журналист, Афганистан;
• Сайед Мохаммад Сухраби, журналист, Афганистан;
• Мохаммад Насир Кухзад, журналист и политический аналитик, Афганистан;
• Фазель Меналла, политический аналитик, Афганистан;
• М. Вахид Бениш, политический аналитик, Афганистан;
• Махмуд Джан Шафизада, политический аналитик, Афганистан;
• Фазель Рахман Ория, политический аналитик, Афганистан;
• Заргон Шах Шинвари, политический аналитик, Афганистан;
• Абдул Гафор Шинвари, политический аналитик, Афганистан;
• Доктор Ахмад Юсуфи, декан Университета Катеб, Афганистан;
• д-р Яйя Балагхат, вице-президент по науке, Университет Катеб, Афганистан;
• Чаман Шах Этемади, ректор Гарджистанского университета, Афганистан;
• Доктор Месбах, директор Университета Салам, Афганистан;
• Доктор Пирзад Ахмад Фавад, Кабульский университет;
• д-р Насир Навиди, декан частного университета, Афганистан;
• Забиулла Фазли, декан частного университета, Афганистан;
• Рамиш Адиб, проректор частного университета, Афганистан;
• М. Талут Муахид, декан частного университета, Афганистан;
• Эбрахим Ансари, директор школы, Афганистан;
• Абас Али Зимозай, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Аршад Рахими, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Фасихуддин Фасихи, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Вайсуддин Джавад, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Муртаза Шарзой, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Матин Монис, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мохаммад Вахид Бениш, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Хуссиан Икбал, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мухсин Решад, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мохаммад Садик Бакори, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мохаммад Захир Халими, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Рохла Курбани, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Муртаза Резаи, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Гулам Расул Карлук, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Наджим Вахиди, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Рашид Икбал, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Абдул Рахман Матин, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Муджтаба Амин, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Аманулла Факири, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Абузар Хпелвак Зазай, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Белал Таяб, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Адель Хакими, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Васикулла Гиас, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Фариддуин Атар, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Сафиулла Джаухар, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Амир Ян Сакиб, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Шекиб Рахмани, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Гульзар Хашими, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Тадж Мохаммад, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Хекматулла Мирзад, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Абдул Хак Атид, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Фахим Моманд, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Фавад Эхсас, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Накибулла Седики, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Майванд Вахиди, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Назир Хаяти, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Наджиба Рахмани, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Абеда Баба Кархил, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Доктор М. Каюм Карим, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Сайед Шариф Шабир, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Валид Ховайда, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Залмай Рахиб, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Доктор Садик Бакори, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мир Зафаруддин Ансари, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Атта Мохаммад Алвак, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Доктор Забиулла Икбал, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Доктор Хасан Фазаили, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• М. Джавад Джалили, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мухтар Али Насто, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Наматулла Набави, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Гулам Абас Нури, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мустафа Анвари, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Фахрия Попал, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Шиба Шарзай, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Мария Хашими, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Нилофар Хашими, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Муниса Хасан, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Назифа Азими, преподаватель университета, Афганистан;
• Суита Шарифи, преподаватель; Афганистан;
• Фаяз Гюль, преподаватель, Афганистан;
• Закия Ахмад Зай, преподаватель, Афганистан;
• Нигани Барати, специалист по образованию, Афганистан;
• Азита Нажанд, учитель, Афганистан;
• Сугра, Учитель, Афганистан;
• Надя Шариф, учитель, Афганистан;
• Марьям Омари, учитель, Афганистан;
• Масуд, Учитель, Афганистан;
• Зубайр Ахмад, учитель, Афганистан;
• Халил Ахмад, учитель, Афганистан;
• Хадиджа Омид, учитель, Афганистан;
• Хайда Расули, учитель, Афганистан;
• Хемат Хамад, учитель, Афганистан;
• Вазир Сафи, учитель, Афганистан;
• Мохаммад Касим, учитель, Афганистан;
• Замин Шах, учитель, Афганистан;
• Сайед Кайас, учитель, Афганистан;
• Мехрабуддин, учитель, Афганистан;
• Захидулла Захид, учитель, Афганистан;
• Акмаль Махрос, учитель, Афганистан;
• Садия Мохаммади, учитель, Афганистан;
• Мина Амири, учитель, Афганистан;
• М. Саджад Никзад, учитель, Афганистан;
• Мурсал Никзад, учитель, Афганистан;
• Абдул Кадир Шахаб, учитель, Афганистан;
• М. Хасан Сахи, учитель, Афганистан;
• Мирваис Хакмаль, учитель, Афганистан;
• Лида Хурасай, учитель, Афганистан;
• Каришма Хашими, инструктор, Афганистан;
• Маджид Шамс, архитектор, Афганистан;
• Азимулла Эсмати, магистр гражданского строительства, Афганистан;
• Наджибулла Хуссаини, инженер, Афганистан;
• Бурхануддин Незами, инженер, Афганистан;
• Абдул Хафиз Хафизи, инженер, Афганистан;
• Бахир, инженер, Афганистан;
• Вали Баян, инженер, Афганистан;
• Абдул Халик Наджир, инженер, Афганистан;
• Диана Ниязи, инженер, Афганистан;
• Имам Джан, инженер, Афганистан;
• Халил Ахмад Надем, инженер, Афганистан;
• Саид Ака, инженер, Афганистан;
• Эдрис Расули, инженер, Афганистан;
• Раз Мохаммад, горный инженер, Афганистан;
• Насрулла Рахими, технический инженер, Афганистан;
• Эхсанулла, Гильменд, инженер-строитель, Нидерланды;
• Ахмад Хамад, технолог, Афганистан;
• Акмаль Ахмади, технолог, Афганистан;
• Эршад Хурмати, технолог, Афганистан;
• М. Акрам Шафим, технолог, Афганистан;
• М. Акбар Эхсан, технолог, Афганистан;
• Разиулла, технолог, Афганистан;
• Заки Хоррами, ИТ-специалист, Афганистан;
• Осман Никзад, графический дизайнер, Афганистан;
• Марьям Аяни, ковровщица, Афганистан;
• Бе бе сима Хашими, портной, Афганистан;
• Марьям Масуми, портной, Афганистан;
• Ройя Мохаммади, мастер, Афганистан;
• Надя Сайес, мастер, Афганистан;
• Наздана Эбад, мастер, Афганистан;
• Сима Ахмади, бакалавр биологии, Афганистан;
• Сима Расули, торговец, Афганистан;
• Хатера Наваби, торговец, Афганистан;
• Хаджи Нур Ага Хакьяр, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Хусна Анвари, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Наргис Хашими, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Шакира Бариш, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Насима Дарвиш, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Ваджиха Хайдари, коммерсант из Джаузджана, Афганистан;
• Шагуль, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Фатима Ник Расул, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Хаджи Фарид Аликозай, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Нигина Наваби, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Масуда Назими, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Наджла Кохистани, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Керишма Джаухари, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Хасина Хашими, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Хусна Анвари, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Мааз Бабурзай, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Фрешта Сафари, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Ялда Азими, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Азим Джан Баба Кархил, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Ахтар Мохаммад, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• М. Харун Ахмадзай, коммерсант, Афганистан;
• Азизулла Файзи, бывший глава Афганистана по крикету, Афганистан;
• Вакиль Акхар, прокурор, Афганистан;
• Ахтар М. Азими, прокурор, Афганистан;
• Шабнам Нури, прокурор, Афганистан;
• Бебе Абеда Вайар, прокурор, Афганистан;
• Мадина Ахмад Зай, прокурор, Афганистан;
• Шакила Джоя, бывший сотрудник генерального прокурора Афганистана;
• Сардар М. Акбар Башаш, член Союза афганских белуджей, Афганистан;
• Англ. Абдул Даян Балуш, официальный представитель Союза белуджей Афганистана, Афганистан;
• Шах Махмуд Лахоти, член Союза афганских белуджей, Афганистан;
• Абдул Халик Барекзай, советник, Союз афганских белуджей, Афганистан;
• Салахуддин Аюби Балуш, советник, Союз афганских белуджей, Афганистан;
• Файзуддин Лашкари Балуш, член Союза афганских белуджей, Афганистан;
• Сайед Исхак Гилани, глава Движения национальной солидарности Афганистана, МЭА;
• Хаджи Залмай Латифи, представитель племен кызылбаш, Афганистан;
• Гуль Наби Ахмад Зай, бывший командующий Кабульским гарнизоном, Афганистан;
• Гулам Хусейн Резаи, член Организации Хабитат, Афганистан;
• Доктор Амани Адиба, доктор свободных искусств в области архитектуры и городского планирования, Афганистан;
• Исмаэль Пайенда, афганский борец за мир, Франция;
• Мохаммад Белал Рахими, глава Института мира, Афганистан;
• М. Муштак Ханафи, глава совета Саядан, Афганистан;
• Сабира Вайзи, основательница T.W.P.S., Афганистан;
• Маджабин Шарифи, член Женской сетевой организации, Афганистан;
• Шекиба Саадат, бывший глава управления по делам женщин Афганистана;
• Атья Салик, активистка по правам женщин, Афганистан;
• Фатима Махмуди, активистка по правам женщин, Афганистан;
• Диана Рохин, активистка по правам женщин, Афганистан;
• Амена Хашими, глава женской организации, Афганистан;
• Фатанх Шариф, бывший сотрудник отдела гендерного равенства, Афганистан;
• Седик Мансур Ансари, гражданский активист, Афганистан;
• Себгатулла Наджиби, гражданский активист, Афганистан;
• Наэмулла Насири, гражданский активист, Афганистан;
• Реха Рамазани, гражданский активист, Афганистан;
• Лия Джавад, гражданский активист, Афганистан;
• Арезо Хурасани, общественный активист, Афганистан;
• Бехешта Бэрн, социальный активист, Афганистан;
• Самсама Хайдари, общественный активист, Афганистан;
• Шабнам Никзад, правозащитник, Афганистан;
• Млиха Садики, глава Организации молодого развития, Афганистан;
• Мехрия, Шарифи, студентка университета;
• Шиба Азими, член организации IPSO, Афганистан;
• Надира Рашиди, магистр менеджмента, Афганистан;
• Сефатулла Атаи, банковское дело, Афганистан;
• Хатира Юсуфи, сотрудник RTA, Афганистан;
• Ялда Мирзад, сотрудник компании «Брешна», Афганистан;
• Иззатулла Шерзад, сотрудник, Афганистан;
• Эрфанулла Саламзай, Афганистан;
• Насер Абдул Рахим Хиль, Афганистан;
• Гулам Расул Фаизи, Афганистан;
• Доктор Мир Ага Хасан Хил, Афганистан;
• Абдул Гафор Муради, Афганистан;
• Гул М. Ажир, Афганистан;
• Гюль Ахмад Заирян, Афганистан;
• Шамсул Рахман Шамс, Афганистан;
• Халик Станекзай, Афганистан;
• М. Дауд Хайдари, Афганистан;
• Мархаба Субхани, Афганистан;
• Маазулла Насим, Афганистан;
• Хаджи Мохаммад Тайеб, Афганистан;
• Али Сина Масуми, Афганистан;
• Суита Садики Хотак, Афганистан;
• Хатира Анвари, Афганистан;
• Фатима Шарзад, Афганистан; Момен Шах Какар, Афганистан;
• Шах Рукх Рауфи, Афганистан;
• Ханифа Расули, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Кудсия Эбрахими, Афганистан;
• Махмуд Хакикат, Афганистан;
• Насир Абдул Рахим Хан, Кабул, Афганистан;
• Абдул Хамид Ахмадзай, Афганистан;
• Сардар Хан Сират, Афганистан;
• Зурматулла Ахмади, Афганистан;
• Ясар Хогьяни, Афганистан;
• Шар Ша Лоди, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Шах Омар, Афганистан;
• М. Азам Хан Ахмад Зай, Афганистан;
• Надя Фарук Шарзой, Афганистан;
• Шар Али Тазари, Афганистан;
• Майель Ака Хаким, Афганистан;
• Хатира Хесар, Афганистан;
• Тамим Мехрабан, Афганистан;
• Лина Нури, Афганистан;
• Хубайб Гуфран, Афганистан;
• М. Ясин Фарахманд, Афганистан;
• Доктор Мир М. Аюби, Афганистан;
• Д-р Наматулла Набави, Афганистан;
• Абозар Зазай, Афганистан;
• Атикулла Рахими, Афганистан;
• Фахим Ахмад Султан, Афганистан;
• Хумайра Фархангьяр, Афганистан;
• Имам М. Вримадж, Афганистан;
• Масуд Ашна, Афганистан;
• Доктор Яхья Байза, Афганистан;
• Д-р Бесмила, Афганистан;
• Эхсан Шориш, Германия;
• Иршад, Омер, Афганистан;
• Муса Нурзай, Афганистан;
• Лида Нури Нажанд, Афганистан;
• д-р Абдул Масуд Панах, Афганистан;
• Голам Сачи Хасанзада, Афганистан;
• д-р Сайед Али Экбал, Афганистан;
• Хашматулла Атмар, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Матин Сафи, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Гильменд, Афганистан;
• Эхсанулла Гильменд, Афганистан;
• Изазатулла Шерзад, Афганистан;
• Хафизулла Омарзай, Афганистан;
• Хедаятулла Хилал, Афганистан;
• Эдрис Рамез, студент, Афганистан;
• Амина Саадати, Афганистан;
• Муска Хамиди, Афганистан;
• Райхана Ахмади, Афганистан;
• Зухал Шерзад, Афганистан;
• Милад Ахмад, Афганистан;
• Девах Кубра Фальконе, Германия;
• Марьям Бабури, Германия;
• Сурая Пайкан, Афганистан;
• Абдул Фатах Ахмадзай, Афганистан;
• Д-р Мохаммад Залмаи, Афганистан;
• Хашматулла Парварни, Афганистан;
• Асадулла, Афганистан;
• Хедаят Улла Хиллал, Афганистан;
• Наджибулла Зазай, Афганистан;
• М. Юсуф Ахмади, Афганистан;
• Ахмад Решад Река, Афганистан;
• Сайед Ахмад Аргандивал, Афганистан;
• Нурия Нузай, Афганистан;
• Англ. Фахим Османи, Афганистан;
• Вафиулла Маарадж, Афганистан;
• Ройя Шуджаи, Афганистан;
• Шакира Шуджаи, Афганистан;
• Адина Ранджбар, Афганистан;
• Айеша Шафик, Афганистан;
• Хаджира Муджадиди, Афганистан;
• Зухра Мохаммад Зай, Афганистан;
• Разия Гавс, Афганистан;
• Абдул Сабор Мубариз, Афганистан;
• Абдул Халик Фердоус, Афганистан;
• Абдул Шакур Саланги, Афганистан;
• Насир Ахмад Башарьяр, Афганистан;
• Мохаммад Мухтар Шарифи, Афганистан;
• Мухтар Ахмад Хакташ, Афганистан;
• Юсуф Амин Зазай, Афганистан;
• Закири Сахиб, Афганистан;
• Мирваис Гафори, Афганистан;
• Несар Рахмани, Афганистан;
• Шар М. Амир Зада, Афганистан;
• Ясин Фарахманд, Афганистан;
• Файзул Хак Файзан, Афганистан;
• Хайбар Сарвари, Афганистан;
• Али Сина Масуми, Афганистан;
• Хамидулла Ахунд Зада, Афганистан;
• д-р Бениш, Афганистан;
• Хаятулла Фазель, Афганистан;
• Файзулла Хабиби, Афганистан;
• Абдул Хамид Лян, Афганистан;
• Абдул Каюм Кайюм Зада, Афганистан;
• Кази Кудратулла Сафи, Афганистан;
• Нур Ага Хакьяр, Афганистан;
• Марьян Айани, Афганистан;
Б. ДРУГИЕ СТРАНЫ
• Одиль Моджон, Институт Шиллера, Париж, Франция;
• Йоханна Клерк, дирижер хора Института Шиллера, Франция;
• Себастьен Перимони, Отдел Африки, Институт Шиллера, Франция;
• Кристин Бьер, журналист, главный редактор ежемесячного журнала «Новая солидарность», Франция;
• Марсия Мерри Бейкер, эксперт по сельскому хозяйству, EIR, соредактор, США;
• Боб Ван Хи, комиссар округа Редвуд, штат Миннесота, США;
• Доктор Тарик Вардаг, доктор естественных наук (RER), владелец бизнеса, Германия;
• Ричард Фриман, факультет физической экономики, Институт Шиллера, США;
• Лилиана Горини, председатель Movisol и певица, Италия;
• Ульрике Лиллге, редактор журнала Ibykus Magazine, Берлин, Германия;
• Мишель Расмуссен, вице-президент Института Шиллера в Дании, музыкант-любитель;
• Фериде Истогу Гиллесберг, вице-президент Института Шиллера в Дании;
• Джейсон Росс, научный отдел, Институт Шиллера, США;
• Деннис Смолл, директор экономического отдела Института Шиллера, США;
• Роберт «Боб» Бейкер, Комиссия по сельскому хозяйству, Институт Шиллера, США;
• Доктор Вольфганг Лиллге, врач, редактор журнала Fusion, Берлин, Германия;
• Ульф Сандмарк, заместитель председателя Института «Пояс и путь», Швеция;
• Мэри Джейн Фриман, Институт Шиллера, США;
• Хусейн Аскари, координатор по Юго-Западной Азии, Институт Шиллера, Швеция;
• Дэвид Добродт, EIR News, США;
• Клаус Фиммен, 2-й заместитель председателя партии Bürgerrechtsbewegung Solidarität (Büso), Германия;
• Кристоф Ламотт, инженер-консультант, Франция;
• Ричард Берден, производственный персонал EIR, США;
• Рольф Гердес, инженер-электронщик, Германия;
• Марселла Скиннер, США;
• Делаво Матье, сельскохозяйственный рабочий, Франция;
• Шекеба Йентч, StayIN, Board, Германия;
• Бернар Карай, почтовый работник на пенсии, Франция;
• Этьен Дрейфус, общественный активист, Франция;
• Харрисон Элфринк, общественный активист, США;
• Джейсон Зейдманн, США.
Pourquoi l’Empire romain reste un modèle pour l’oligarchie
Pour gagner une bataille politique, le premier travail de tout stratège consiste à identifier avec soin la « géométrie mentale » de son ennemi afin d’évaluer précisément ses forces et ses faiblesses. Pour cela, il lui faut parfois se boucher le nez avant de pénétrer l’esprit répugnant de son adversaire. C’est ce que je vous invite à faire ici avec l’Empire romain.
Si, hier, vous avez découvert les problèmes des baby-boomers et autres soixante-huitards – souvent un mélange pathétique de bourgeois-bohèmes (« bobo ») et de libéraux-libertaires (« lili ») – aujourd’hui, je vous présente le stade ultime de leur version la plus décadente : les libéraux-impérialistes (« limp »).
Le « Projet pour un nouveau siècle Américain » (PNAC)
Le 11 septembre 2001, les observateurs de la vie politique américaine furent frappés de stupeur en entendant les déclarations fracassantes du vice-président, Dick Cheney. En effet, avant même l’ouverture d’une quelconque enquête sur les attentats, celui-ci déclara d’emblée qu’il fallait frapper l’Irak.
Dès le lendemain, à en croire les dires du célèbre journaliste du Washington Post, Bob Woodward, dans son livre « Bush at War », le ministre de la Défense, Donald Rumsfeld, déclarait lors d’une réunion à la Maison-Blanche que « l’Irak devait être l’une des premières cibles de la guerre contre le terrorisme ». Réaction impulsive de faucon ? Non, car en réalité, la clique de Cheney et Rumsfeld souhaitait achever cette guerre commencée en 1991. C’est un vieux projet qu’ils défendent depuis la chute du mur de Berlin et bien que, selon eux, Bush père ait fait quelques pas dans la bonne direction, la présidence Clinton faillit anéantir tout le chemin parcouru. Ainsi, le 18 février 1992, Paul Wolfowitz (actuel n°2 du Pentagone) et Lewis Libby (chef de cabinet de Cheney) sonnent l’alarme dans un document intitulé « Defense Policy Guidance » (DPG).
Avec Eric Edelman et Zalmay Khalilzad (actuel représentant spécial américain pour l’Irak), ils y développent d’abord la notion de guerre préventive visant à garantir la « prééminence américaine », imposée « par la force, si nécessaire ». Aujourd’hui, grâce à des fuites dans les médias, émanant de documents officiels, nous savons que ce milieu n’exclut nullement l’utilisation d’armes nucléaires, biologiques ou chimiques dans ce but.
Outrés par la « pause stratégique » dans les dépenses militaires imposée par Bill Clinton, qui espérait faire profiter l’économie américaine de ce « dividende de la paix », les faucons vont se regrouper au printemps 1997 dans l’association Project for a New American Century (PNAC), dont feront partie l’actuel vice-président Dick Cheney, son chef de cabinet Lewis Libby (avocat de Marc Rich, un gros bonnet de la pègre,), le ministre de la Défense Donald Rumsfeld, son adjoint Paul Wolfowitz, William Kristol, du Weekly Standard, Abram Shulsky, Robert Kagan et même Jeb Bush. Leur thèse sera présentée comme une proposition programmatique à la future administration de George W. Bush, en septembre 2000, sous le titre « Rebuilding America’s Defenses ».
Plus nuancé dans ses propos, graphiques et statistiques à l’appui, ce rapport souligne que les années 90 furent une « décade de négligence » par rapport à la réalité militaire et que cette négligence tend à gâcher ce que Charles Krauthammer nommait ce « moment unipolaire » qui s’instaura à la chute du mur de Berlin, faisant disparaître le dernier compétiteur mondial, l’URSS.
Sans scrupules, une doctrine impériale classique y est pleinement développée sous le label « Pax Americana », dernier nom de l’utopie d’un gouvernement mondial sous la coupe des élites malthusiennes anglo-américaines, « l’anglosphère ».
L’introduction se termine ainsi : « Ce rapport part de la conviction que l’Amérique doit chercher à préserver et étendre sa position de leadership global en maintenant la prééminence des forces militaires américaines. Aujourd’hui, les Etats-Unis d’Amérique ont une occasion stratégique sans précédent. Ils n’ont à confronter aucun défi immédiat, posé par une quelconque grande puissance ; ils disposent d’alliés puissants dans chaque partie du monde ; ils sont au milieu de la plus grande période de croissance économique de leur histoire ; de plus, leurs principes politiques (la démocratie, ndr) et économiques (le libre-échange, ndr) sont presque universellement acceptés. A aucun autre moment de l’histoire, l’ordre mondial ne fut aussi réceptif aux intérêts et idéaux américains. Le défi que pose le siècle à venir est la préservation et la pérennisation de cette Pax Americana » (page IV).
Pour faire des Etats-Unis ce pouvoir militaire incontestable, puisque, selon les auteurs, seule la puissance militaire peut servir de fondement à cette Pax Americana, quatre nouvelles orientations sont esquissées, résumées ci-dessous.
Le texte affirme d’emblée qu’à l’opposé de l’époque de la Guerre froide, le but stratégique des Etats-Unis au XXIe siècle n’est plus simplement « d’endiguer » l’URSS, mais de « préserver la Pax Americana ». Les quatre nouvelles missions militaires proposées pour cette tâche sont :
- Sécuriser et étendre des zones de paix démocratique.
Moyen : « homeland security » (sécurité domestique), ce qui implique, comme nous le voyons avec la politique du ministre de la Justice et sympathisant du Ku Klux Klan, John Ashcroft, la suppression « librement consentie » des droits civiques les plus élémentaires. - Empêcher l’émergence d’une nouvelle grande puissance rivale.
Moyen : présence militaire multiple, capable de mener plusieurs guerres à la fois (par exemple, simultanément en Iraq et en Corée du Nord). Cet engagement semble tellement monstrueux qu’on a peine à imaginer les moyens d’y parvenir. - Défendre des régions clefs
Moyen : « constabulary duties » (missions de maintien de la paix). - Exploiter les transformations de la guerre
Moyen : « Revolution in Military Affairs » (RMA, révolution dans les affaires militaires). Ces soi-disant armes intelligentes, souvent des armes anciennes « dopées » de gadgets informatiques, ressemblent plus aux armes « miracles » d’Hitler qu’à une réelle révolution technologique impliquant de nouveaux principes physiques. L’échec patent des missiles anti-missiles Patriot et Arrow représente un bon exemple de ce refus hystérique des nouveaux principes physiques qu’impliquait le projet initial d’Initiative de Défense Stratégique (IDS).
Évidemment, en conclusion de l’argumentaire, on constate amèrement qu’en temps de paix, hélas, l’opinion publique aura certaines réticences à souscrire à de tels programmes et à accepter de supporter le fardeau budgétaire qu’ils impliquent. On y affirme (page 51) que tout cela prendra énormément de temps, « sauf s’il se produit un évènement catastrophique et catalyseur, du type nouveau Pearl Harbour ».
Rappelons ici qu’Henry Kissinger, entre autres, avait immédiatement employé le terme « Pearl Harbour » pour caractériser les attentats du 11 septembre. Il est donc clair que l’enjeu de la guerre en Irak dépasse largement la question du contrôle des hydrocarbures, mais implique la mise en place d’un gouvernement mondial, une « Pax Americana » à l’instar de la fictive « Pax Romana » de l’Empire romain. Or, à l’époque, le monde romain était le monde tout court.
Le fardeau
Justement, le 5 janvier 2003, le New York Times a publié un article retentissant intitulé « The Burden » (le fardeau), écrit par un certain Michael Ignatieff, à l’instar de l’article de Rudyard Kipling, « le fardeau de l’homme blanc ».
Ignatieff est un anglo-canadien d’origine russe qui vit en Angleterre, petit-fils du fondateur de l’Okhrana (services secrets du Tsar) et professeur dans de multiples écoles de l’élite anglo-américaine, tel que le St-Anthony College de Londres, le King’s College de Cambridge, l’inévitable Harvard, aux Etats-Unis, et même l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes de Paris. Ignatieff s’exprime aussi régulièrement sur la BBC. Ce jeune professeur talentueux, véritable sommité de l’establishment anglo-américain, est un peu le porte-parole d’une faction des élites en place.
En France, on se rappellera certainement le premier supplément du Monde reprenant certains articles du New York Times, dont l’un relatait les prises de positions des intellectuels anglo-américains au sujet de « cet empire qui vient ». Ignatief n’est donc pas le premier à s’interroger sur les avantages et les risques posés à une république (les Etats-Unis) qui accepte ou décide de devenir un empire (anglo-américain).
Citant un historien anglais qui affirme que si l’Angleterre a acquis un empire, ce fut sûrement « in a fit of absence of mind » (sur un coup de tête), Ignatieff écrit :
« Bien que les Américains possèdent un empire, ils l’ont acquis tout en niant son existence. Mais le 11 septembre fut un réveil, un moment de prise de conscience de l’ampleur de la puissance américaine et des haines vengeresses qu’elle suscite. Peut-être les Américains n’ont-ils jamais vu les tours du World Trade Center ou le Pentagone comme symboles d’un empire mondial, mais les pirates de l’air avec leurs cutters les ont certainement perçus comme tels, ainsi que les millions de personnes qui ont applaudi leurs actes ».
Cessons donc de nous voiler la face, poursuit-il, car quel
« autre mot que celui d’empire peut décrire l’objet formidable que l’Amérique est en train de devenir ? C’est la seule nation qui gendarme le monde à travers cinq commandements militaires globaux, qui maintient plus d’un million d’hommes et de femmes en armes sur quatre continents, déploie des groupes de combat sur porte-avions pour surveiller chaque océan, garantit la survie de pays tels qu’Israël et la Corée du Sud, fait tourner la roue du commerce et des échanges mondiaux et emplit le cœur et l’esprit de la planète entière de ses rêves et désirs ».
Ignatieff prend le temps d’évaluer les avantages et désavantages de ce genre d’entreprise :
« L’opération qui menace en Irak constitue ainsi un moment décisif dans le long débat de l’Amérique avec elle-même pour savoir si son rôle d’empire outremer menace ou renforce son existence en tant que république (…). Même en cette heure tardive, il est encore possible de se demander : pourquoi une république devrait-elle assumer les risques d’un empire ? (…) Changer un régime est une tâche impériale par excellence, étant donné qu’elle suppose que l’intérêt de l’empire lui donne le droit de défaire la souveraineté d’un Etat.
(…) Il faudra une décennie pour que l’ordre, sans parler de la démocratie, se consolide en Irak. (…). Comme tous les exercices impériaux en matière de création d’ordre, cela ne fonctionnera que si les fantoches installés par les Américains cessent d’être des fantoches et construisent leur propre légitimité politique indépendante.
(…) De quels atouts les dirigeants américains disposent-ils ? (…) La projection de la puissance américaine (…) porte avant tout un uniforme militaire. (…) et peut apporter aux Etats-Unis crainte et respect mais pas l’admiration ni l’affection.
(…) Le 11 septembre a renforcé la leçon qui veut que la puissance mondiale se mesure encore en termes de capacité militaire.
(…) Les Américains ne peuvent pas se permettre de créer à eux seuls un ordre global. La participation européenne au maintien de la paix, à la construction de nations et à la reconstruction humanitaire est si importante que les Américains doivent, même contre leur gré, inclure les Européens dans la gouvernance de leur projet impérial en évolution. Ce sont les Américains qui dictent, pour l’essentiel, la place de l’Europe dans ce nouveau grand dessein. Les Etats-Unis sont multilatéraux quand ça les arrange, unilatéraux quand il le faut ; et ils imposent une nouvelle division du travail dans laquelle l’Amérique assure le combat, les Français, les Britanniques et les Allemands, les patrouilles policières dans les zones frontalières, et les Hollandais, les Suisses et les Scandinaves, l’aide humanitaire.
(…) Un nouvel ordre international émerge, mais il est conçu pour répondre aux objectifs impériaux américains. Les alliés de l’Amérique veulent un ordre multilatéral qui restreigne sa puissance, mais l’empire ne se laissera pas lier, à l’instar de Gulliver, par des milliers de cordes légales. »
Pour Ignatieff, la chose est donc acquise, l’empire est bien là ! L’unique question qui reste en suspens, c’est de savoir comment faire pour que ça fonctionne correctement. Sa démarche semble presque une postface à l’analyse de l’historien Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), un proche de Lord Shelburne en Angleterre, qui écrivit en 1776 Déclin et chute de l’empire romain.
Avec La Richesse des Nations, ce manuel de la rente financière comme socle d’un ordre oligarchique, écrit par Adam Smith, le livre de Gibbon était une attaque stratégique contre la jeune république américaine, instaurée la même année par Benjamin Franklin et ses amis colbertistes. Après la perte de l’Amérique pour l’Empire britannique, le livre de Gibbon tente de tirer les leçons de l’histoire.
Ignatieff rappelle l’analyse faite par Gibbon pour expliquer la chute de l’empire romain :
« Les empires survivent lorsqu’ils comprennent que la diplomatie, soutenue par la force, est toujours préférable à la seule force. Si l’on considère l’avenir encore plus lointain, disons d’ici une génération, la Russie et la Chine résurgentes exigeront d’être reconnues en tant que puissances mondiales dotées d’une hégémonie régionale. Comme le montre le cas de la Corée du Nord, l’Amérique a besoin de partager avec ces puissances le contrôle de la non-prolifération et d’autres menaces, et si elle essaie, comme le suggère la Stratégie de sécurité nationale actuelle, d’empêcher l’émergence de tout rival à la domination globale américaine, elle risque ce que Gibbon prévoyait : une sur extension, suivie de la défaite. »
Aujourd’hui, le Commonwealth anglais, successeur des Vénitiens qui se dénommaient les « nouveaux Romains », est supposé représenter le modèle de ce savoir-faire impérial de gouvernement indirect, mais réel.
L’empire romain
En tout cas, ce débat nous oblige à devenir « expert ès Empire romain » dans les plus brefs délais. Pour cela, une rapide visite dans une grande librairie nous met devant une terrible évidence : s’il y a pléthore de livres sur Rome et l’Empire, quasiment aucun ne traite réellement de son déclin.
Jadis, en France, les élèves pouvaient au moins profiter du vieux Malet et Isaac, qui nous en apprend bien plus que la plupart des experts d’aujourd’hui, époque où certains enseignent l’histoire de la sandale, de Jules César à Marilyne Monroe…
Mais forcément, la plupart des auteurs qui ont écrit sur le sujet sont fascinés par la grandeur, les institutions, l’organisation de ce système. Dans l’Encyclopaedia Universalis, un auteur, d’ailleurs conférencier sur le sujet, défend mordicus que le terme de « Bas-Empire », jugé trop péjoratif, mériterait d’être remplacé aujourd’hui par « Antiquité tardive ». Quant aux livres qui prétendent enquêter sur le déclin de l’Empire, ils affirment qu’il n’existe aucun élément matériel prouvant sa chute. « Au moment où Rome s’effondre et se dépeuple, d’autres régions se portent très bien », etc.
Après tout, cette vision est peut-être la bonne façon de voir les choses, car pour chuter, il faut d’abord monter !
En vérité, la « civilisation » romaine a été une longue période de guerres et de génocide permanent, qui mérite le label de « l’une des barbaries les mieux organisées ». La description que nous en livre la philosophe française Simone Weil (1909-1943) donne presque envie de faire interdire les bandes dessinées d’Astérix pour « banalisation d’actes génocidaires » :
« Les Romains ont conquis le monde par le sérieux, la discipline, l’organisation, la continuité des vues et de la méthode ; par la conviction qu’ils étaient une race supérieure et née pour commander ; par l’emploi médité, calculé, méthodique de la plus impitoyable cruauté, de la perfidie froide, de la propagande la plus hypocrite, employée simultanément ou tour à tour ; par une résolution inébranlable de toujours tout sacrifier au prestige, sans être jamais sensible, ni au péril, ni à la pitié, ni à aucun respect humain ; par l’art de décomposer sous la terreur l’âme même de leurs adversaires ou de les endormir par l’espérance, avant de les asservir avec les armes ; enfin par un maniement si habile du plus grossier mensonge qu’ils ont trompé même la postérité et nous trompent encore. »
Saint-Augustin, l’un des pères de l’Eglise, (354-430) ne dit pas autre chose quand il s’insurge contre ceux qui pensent que, du fait qu’elle a duré longtemps, la civilisation romaine était nécessairement grande. Il écrit dans La cité de Dieu :
« Voyons donc maintenant ce que vaut la prétention des païens qui ont l’audace d’attribuer à leurs dieux l’étendue si grande et la durée si longue de l’empire romain, en affirmant même s’être honnêtement conduits en honorant ces dieux par hommage de jeux infâmes, représentés par d’infâmes comédiens. Mais je voudrais d’abord, brièvement, examiner une question : Quelle raison, quelle sagesse y a-t-il à vouloir se glorifier de l’étendue et de la grandeur de l’empire romain, alors qu’on ne peut démontrer que les hommes soient heureux en vivant dans les horreurs de la guerre, en versant le sang de leurs concitoyens ou celui des ennemis, sang humain toujours, et sous le coup de sombres terreurs et de sauvages passions ?
(…) Pour en juger plus aisément, gardons-nous de nous laisser jouer par une vaine jactence ; ne laissons pas la pointe de notre esprit s’émousser au choc des mots sonores : peuples, royaumes, provinces. » (Livre IV, III)
Les origines
Pour bien saisir le « tournant impérial » fondamental de la civilisation romaine, qui se produit bien avant l’arrivée officielle de « l’Empire », rappelons d’abord quelques éléments de son histoire.
Fondée vers -750 par une coalition de Latins et de Sabins, Rome est, dès sa fondation, un centre colonial, sur le modèle perse, subjuguant et protégeant militairement des territoires et des satrapes, sans pour autant fonder de pays ni de nation. On pourrait dire qu’elle créa non pas un, mais de multiples protectorats, dirigés par un quarteron d’oligarques vivant dans un luna-parc, un vaste parc d’attraction du nom de Rome.
Plusieurs peuples organisés et tribus disputent les territoires de la péninsule italienne à la sphère d’influence de Rome, mais devront finalement s’y soumettre. D’abord dans le nord, entre l’Arno et le Tibre, les Etrusques.
Entre – 550 et -509, les Romains sont dirigés par des rois étrusques qui feront de la cité une grande ville, notamment en construisant un réseau d’égouts, la fameuse Cloaca Maxima. Mais les rois étrusques, accusés tantôt d’être tyranniques, tantôt trop favorables au peuple, sont chassés par des familles patriciennes qui fondent un simulacre de République, laissant en fait le véritable pouvoir aux grandes familles qui siègent au Sénat.
Dans le sud, Rome va mettre sous sa coupe les nombreuses populations grecques installées là depuis des siècles, dont la capitale était la cité-état de Syracuse en Sicile, comptoir de Corinthe qui contrôlait la Méditerranée orientale. Malgré l’accord conclu en -510 entre la République romaine et Carthage, lui laissant le contrôle de la Méditerranée occidentale, Rome entrera dans un long affrontement avec cette ville d’Afrique du Nord devenue, après Tyr, le centre du commerce phénicien.
Ce conflit est amplement décrit par les historiens romains Polybe (204 av. J.C. – 118 av. J.C.) et Tite-Live (59 av. J.C. – 17), sous le nom de guerres puniques.
Les guerres puniques
Dès le IIIe siècle av. J.C., Carthage domine presque toute l’Afrique du Nord et une bonne partie de la côte sud de l’Espagne.
L’enjeu de la première guerre punique (-264 à -241) sera le contrôle de la Sicile, pièce maîtresse pour prendre le contrôle de la Méditerranée. A l’opposé des Carthaginois et des Grecs, peuples de commerçants et de marins, jusque-là les Romains sont plutôt des terriens et des agriculteurs.
Pour conquérir la Sicile, ils devront s’adapter, notamment en se dotant d’une force navale efficace. Ainsi, au cours de l’hiver -261, Rome construit cent « quinquérèmes », dont le plan demeure incertain, sur le modèle de l’épave d’un navire carthaginois. Ce bateau compte cinq niveaux de rameurs, soit deux de plus que les « trirèmes » grecques.
Le consul Duilius introduira le « corbeau » (corvus), rampe d’abordage muni d’un grappin qui s’enfonçait si solidement dans le pont de l’adversaire que les deux navires étaient littéralement soudés. Les Romains, ayant ainsi rétabli un champ de bataille « terrestre » à leur avantage, envahissaient alors le pont de l’ennemi, et leur férocité au corps à corps leur permettait d’arracher la victoire, comme ce fut le cas à la bataille de Myles (-260) et à celle d’Ecnome (-256).
Carthage est vaincue et un traité de paix est signé, imposant une indemnité de guerre dont les conditions seront durcies suites aux demandes du « peuple » aux comices (assemblées).
Peu après, Rome se fait remettre la Sardaigne et la Corse, causant une injustice à l’origine d’un nouveau conflit. A Carthage, les populations furieuses délaissent alors le parti pacifiste des Hannons pour se tourner vers le parti des revanchards que sont les Barcides (Hamilkar Barca, Hannibal, etc.)
La deuxième guerre punique (-218 à -201) sera surtout un bras de fer entre un homme, Hannibal, et Rome. Ce carthaginois était un stratège génial, légendaire pour sa traversée des Alpes avec des éléphants et ses victoires sur les Romains sur le Tessin, sur les bords de la Trébie, au bord du lac Trasimène et surtout à la bataille mythique de Cannes (-216) où, sur 80 000 Romains, 45 000 furent tués.
Pourtant, en 202, le Romain Scipion (l’Africain) infligera à Hannibal une défaite décisive à Zama (Tunisie actuelle). De nouveau, un traité de paix est signé entre Rome et Carthage, qui perd ses possessions territoriales en Espagne et sera obligée de payer 50 000 talents répartis sur cinquante ans.
Carthago delenda est [Il faut détruire Carthage]
Ainsi, à la fin de la deuxième guerre punique, les Romains, pourvus d’une puissance militaire inégalée, se trouvent dans le même type de « moment unipolaire » que celui de « l’empire américain » aujourd’hui.
Voyant Carthage redevenir prospère cinquante ans après sa défaite, le « faucon » Caton le censeur, convaincu qu’il faut éliminer « la montée de tout compétiteur global », achève chacun de ses discours au Sénat par ces mots : Carthago delenda est (il faut détruire Carthage). Rome trouvera les arguties légales et juridiques pour parvenir à ses fins.
Simone Weil, dans ses Réflexions sur les origines de l’Hitlérisme, écrit et publié en 1939, donne le cas de Carthage en exemple de la perfidie qui se cache derrière le « respect du droit » professé par la « Pax Romana », qui inspira tant Hitler :
« [Carthage] dut contracter une alliance avec Rome et promettre de ne jamais engager la guerre sans sa permission. Au cours du demi-siècle qui suivit, les Numides ne cessèrent d’envahir et de piller le territoire de Carthage, qui n’osait se défendre ; pendant la même période de temps, elle aida les Romains dans trois guerres. Les envoyés carthaginois, prosternés sur le sol de la Curie, tenant des rameaux de suppliants, imploraient avec des larmes la protection de Rome, à laquelle le traité leur donnait droit ; le Sénat se gardait bien de la leur accorder. Enfin, poussée à bout par une incursion numide plus menaçante que les autres, Carthage prit les armes, fut vaincue, vit son armée entièrement détruite. Ce fut le moment que Rome choisit pour lui déclarer la guerre, alléguant que les Carthaginois avaient combattu sans sa permission.
(…) [Le Sénat] accorda aux Carthaginois la liberté, leurs lois, leur territoire, la jouissance de tous leurs biens privés et publics, à condition pour eux de livrer en otages trois cents enfants nobles dans le délai d’un mois et d’obéir aux consuls. Les enfants furent livrés aussitôt. Les consuls arrivèrent devant Carthage avec flotte de guerre et armée, et ordonnèrent qu’on leur remît toutes les armes et tous les instruments de guerre sans exception. L’ordre fut exécuté immédiatement.
(…) Les sénateurs, les anciens et les prêtres de Carthage vinrent alors se présenter aux consuls devant l’armée romaine.
(…) Un des consuls annonça aux Carthaginois présents devant lui que tous leurs concitoyens devaient quitter la proximité de la mer et abandonner la ville, et que celle-ci serait complètement rasée. »
Pour les Carthaginois, peuple de marins, se retirer de 80 stades (14 km) de la mer, équivalait à un arrêt de mort ! Après trois ans de résistance et de combats de rue désespérés, Scipion l’Emilien réussit finalement à s’emparer de la ville. Carthage brûla pendant dix-sept jours. Elle fut rasée et on fit mêler du sel à la terre afin de la rendre infertile à jamais.
Augustin en défense de l’Etat-nation
Dans la Cité de Dieu, Augustin ne se lasse pas de critiquer l’esprit impérial. D’abord, il en montre le ridicule :
« Va-t-on répondre : sans ces guerres continues, se succédant à un rythme ininterrompu, l’empire romain n’aurait pu prendre une si large et si vaste extension, ni acquérir une si immense gloire. Belle raison, vraiment ! Pourquoi l’empire, pour être grand, était-il obligé d’être agité ? Ne vaut-il pas mieux pour le corps humain d’avoir une petite taille avec la santé, que d’atteindre une stature gigantesque au prix de malaises perpétuels. » (III,X)
Ensuite, se moquant de l’esprit « justicier » des Romains, il attaque sur le fond :
« A eux donc de voir s’il convient à des gens de bien de se réjouir de l’étendue de l’empire. Car c’est l’injustice des ennemis contre lesquels on a mené des justes guerres qui a aidé l’empire à s’accroître : à coup sûr, il serait resté de peu d’étendue, si des voisins justes et paisibles n’avaient attiré la guerre sur eux par aucune offense. Ainsi pour le bonheur de l’humanité, il n’y aurait eu que de petits royaumes, heureux de vivre en plein accord avec leurs voisins ; et par la suite, l’Univers aurait compté de nombreux États, comme la cité de nombreuses familles. (…) Au reste, vivre en plein accord avec un bon voisin est sans nul doute une félicité plus grande que de subjuguer par la guerre un voisin méchant. » (IV, XV)
Ou encore :
« Je pose ici une question : pourquoi l’empire lui-même n’est-il pas un dieu ? Pourquoi pas, puisque la Victoire est une déesse ? (…) Peut-être, répugne-t-il aux gens de bien de faire des guerres par trop injustes, et pour étendre leur royaume, de provoquer brusquement au combat des voisins tranquilles qui n’ont commis aucune injustice ? » (IV, XIV)
Les conquêtes coloniales
Une alliance de financiers et de généraux ambitieux pousse alors Rome à se lancer dans une immense expansion coloniale pour former seize provinces, qui n’ont pas seulement à souffrir les gouverneurs, mais surtout les banquiers, qui empruntent à taux très bas à Rome et prêtent aux provinciaux à des taux usuraires atteignant jusqu’à 50 % !
Comme le dit sans détour l’Isaac et Malet (p.33) : « Les conquêtes romaines furent en partie une vaste opération financière ».
Sous différents prétextes – économiques, militaires (guerres défensives) et psychologiques (besoins de sécurité) – Rome annexe un ensemble de riches territoires.
- En -148, la Macédoine ;
- en -146, la Grèce et l’Afrique ;
- en -133, l’Espagne ;
- en -120, la Narbonnaise ;
- en -129, l’Asie ;
- en – 101, la Cilicie ;
- en -74 la Bithynie et le Cyrénaïque ;
- en -67 l’Orient (Pont, Syrie) ;
- en -58, la Gaule et
- en -46, la Numidie.
Une société de consommation
Le pillage du monde méditerranéen, notamment en imposant d’énormes indemnités de guerre en biens et en esclaves, transformera une société relativement productive en pure société de consommation.
Le peuple de Rome, jusque-là assez austère, s’enrichit, adaptant son mode de vie et ses mœurs en conséquence. La corruption s’installe et les nobles accaparent le domaine public. Augustin identifie précisément l’intervalle entre la deuxième et la troisième guerre punique comme le moment d’un changement de paradigmes :
« Puis (…) le luxe asiatique plus redoutable que tout ennemi se glissa pour la première fois dans Rome. Alors, en effet, parurent les lits d’airain, des tapis précieux ; alors s’introduisirent dans les banquets les joueuses de cithare, et d’autres licences dépravées. » (III, XXI)
Salluste, parlant de l’époque précédant la deuxième guerre punique affirme :
« Alors les patriciens exercèrent sur la plèbe un pouvoir tyrannique. Ils disposèrent à la façon des rois, des vies et des corps, chassèrent les citoyens de leurs champs et, les privant de tous leurs droits, s’arrogèrent seuls l’autorité. Accablée de vexations et surtout écrasée de dettes, la plèbe qui, au cours de guerres continuelles, supportait à la fois l’impôt et la conscription, se retira en armes sur le Mont Sacré et l’Aventin… » (cité par Augustin, III,XVII)
A Rome, peu à peu, la corruption et la décadence s’installent en maîtres. Des seize derniers empereurs, la plupart sombrent dans une pédérastie criminelle. Suétone écrit dans les Vies des douze Césars :
« Après avoir fait émasculer un enfant nommé Sporus, Néron prétendit même le métamorphoser en femme, se le fit amener avec sa dot et son voile rouge, en grand cortège, suivant le cérémonial ordinaire des mariages, et le traita comme son épouse. (…) paré comme une impératrice et porté en litière, [il] le suivit dans tous les centres judiciaires et marchés de la Grèce, puis, à Rome, Néron le promena, en le couvrant de baisers à tout instant.«
On peut y ajouter l’apparition des premiers combats de gladiateurs et même un retour à l’adoration de dieux maléfiques.
Écroulement démographique
Et pourtant, c’est précisément cette abondance de richesses qui va provoquer le glissement vers la chute. Dès le début de ces conquêtes coloniales, en -130, le Sénat de Rome est forcé de constater une stagnation démographique. Elle se transformera en dépopulation croissante qui se répandra dans les provinces au cours des cinq siècles suivants.
Comme l’a maintes fois démontré l’économiste américain Lyndon LaRouche, le potentiel de densité démographique relative indique « objectivement » la capacité d’accueil d’une économie organisée.
Déjà, les chiffres concernant la simple densité de population de l’Empire romain, comparés à ceux de la Grèce antique, ne laissent aucun doute : en Grèce, en -400, la densité de population atteignait 35 habitants par km2, c’est-à-dire presque un tiers de plus qu’en Italie romaine où elle est de 23,3 habitants par km2 à l’époque la plus peuplée, c’est-à-dire en l’an 1, pour chuter jusqu’à 11,6 en l’an 600 !
Il faudra attendre le début du XIIIe siècle en Italie et le début du XVe en Angleterre pour retrouver une densité de population du même ordre (Italie vers 1200 : 24 h/km2 ; Angleterre en 1377 : 19 h/km2).
A Rome, le gonflement de la force de travail par une main d’œuvre gratuite d’esclaves, grâce à la « mondialisation », précarise les populations autochtones, finissant par ruiner leur système de production. Une fois formalisées les limites de l’empire, le flux d’esclaves frais se tarit et c’est au tour des populations italiennes de subir le même sort.
C’est ce pillage, et la destruction de l’économie physique, qui provoquera l’effondrement spectaculaire de l’an 200. Alors que la population maximale du monde romain atteint 47 millions à son apogée, elle tombera jusqu’à 29 millions autour de l’an 600, soit une réduction proche de 40 % ! Aveuglée et corrompue par un hédonisme dépravé, Rome échoue, incapable de remettre en question les axiomes de la concupiscence sur lesquels est bâti son système. Pour tenter d’inverser la tendance, tout en faisant l’économie d’une réelle remise en cause, l’histoire romaine n’est qu’une longue fuite en avant dans « la régulation », dans l’incapacité où elle se trouve d’agir sur les causes.
On pense ici, non sans ironie, à certains gauchistes simplets de notre époque, qui, pour « lutter contre le capitalisme », proposent « d’interdire les licenciements » ! Rome sera ainsi la championne des régulations, des mesures et des lois. Bien évidemment, toutes les lois et ensemble de mesures qui sont prises, visant à enrayer la catastrophe démographique en limitant ses conséquences, y compris les codes Dioclétien (instaurant le servage, grande invention romaine pour le bonheur de l’humanité !) ou celui de Théodose (qui rend les métiers héréditaires), échouent lamentablement quand ils ne sont pas écartés d’emblée.
Par exemple, les fameuses réformes agraires proposées par les frères Gracques, visant dès -130 à redistribuer les terres cultivables de certains patriciens aux agriculteurs dépourvus de terre qui habitent Rome.
Dans les débats au Sénat, les Gracques expliquent que l’objectif de ces réformes n’est pas tellement de répondre à un désir de justice sociale, mais de satisfaire le besoin de l’empire à disposer d’une main d’œuvre capable de se reproduire. Ils précisent d’ailleurs que leurs réformes ne représentent aucune menace pour les riches. Néanmoins, révélateur d’un déni hystérique de tout principe de réalité, tous deux seront assassinés et leurs réformes abandonnées.
Ensuite, en – 107, faute d’hommes, le général Marius se voit obligé d’ouvrir le recrutement des légions aux classes inférieures, ce qui n’empêche pas de cruelles pénuries de troupes pour les armées de César en Gaule, forçant même Tibère à abandonner certaines conquêtes territoriales, faute de bras.
Sous l’empereur Auguste, le « Lex Juliana » inclue un dispositif populationniste privant les célibataires et les divorcés de leur droit d’héritage. A la campagne, les ressources sont si maigres que les fermiers et travailleurs essayent d’avoir le moins d’enfants possible.
Sous les empereurs Nerva et Trajan (vers l’an 100), les « alimenta » offrent des aides aux familles pour leur permettre de nourrir leurs enfants jusqu’à l’adolescence. Comme pendant la révolution culturelle en Chine, sous Mao, même les familles patriciennes laissent mourir leurs propres filles, pratique qui tend à se généraliser. Même les familles oligarchiques doivent faire face au déclin démographique. Sur les 400 familles siégeant au Sénat à l’époque de Néron, il n’en reste plus que 200 une génération plus tard.
Quelles contributions ?
Mais, dira-t-on, Rome fut un transmetteur de la connaissance grecque et de la culture antique. Qu’en est-il réellement ?
Du point de vue de la science, Simone Weil affirme :
« Aussi les Romains n’ont-ils apporté d’autre contribution à l’histoire de la science que le meurtre d’Archimède ».
En effet, on constate l’abandon de la tradition scientifique grecque au bénéfice d’un pragmatisme purement technique, parfois capable d’assimiler les techniques d’autres cultures (les arcs des Etrusques, le ciment et la brique des Assyriens, etc.). Bien que la roue à eau figure dans les « Dix livres sur l’Architecture » de Vitruve, il y porte peu d’attention. L’application de la technologie ne le passionne pas, si ce n’est la façon de placer hommes et femmes aux bains pour économiser l’eau. Pendant longtemps, les Romains ont gardé les amphores en grès, alors que les Gaulois avaient déjà mis au point le tonneau.
Architecture
Le grand architecte Auguste Choisy écrit en 1899 dans L’Histoire de l’Architecture :
« De l’art grec, qui semble un culte désintéressé rendu aux idées d’harmonie et de beauté abstraite, nous passons à une architecture essentiellement utilitaire : chez les Romains l’architecture devient l’organe d’une autorité toute-puissante pour qui la construction des édifices publics est un moyen de domination. (…) Pour les Romains, l’art de construire est l’art d’utiliser cette force illimitée que la conquête a mise à leur service ; l’esprit de leurs méthodes peut s’énoncer dans un mot : des procédés dont l’application n’exige que des bras. Le corps des édifices se réduit à un massif de cailloux et de mortier, un monolithe construit, une sorte de rocher artificiel. »
Il est utile de comparer la Porta Nigra de Trèves, qui date de la fin du IIIème siècle, construite par simple empilement de pierres, avec la Domus Aurea » (Maison d’or) de Néron à Rome, coupole sphérique sur le modèle des tombes de la Grèce mycénienne, résultant d’une combinaison sophistiquée de maçonnerie et de béton.
Suétone raconte que :
« Tout était couvert de dorures, rehaussées de pierres précieuses et de coquillages à perles ; le plafond des salles à manger était fait de tablettes d’ivoire mobiles et percées de trous, afin que l’on pût répandre d’en haut sur les convives soit des fleurs, soit des parfums : la principale était ronde et tournait continuellement sur elle-même, le jour et la nuit, comme le monde. »
La technologie est au service des caprices de prestige des empereurs fous, mais pas de l’avancement de l’intérêt général !
Infrastructures
A part les immenses aqueducs, science des Etrusques et d’Asie centrale, capables par exemple d’approvisionner plus d’un million d’habitants de Rome grâce à des innovations comme l’emploi du plomb pour la tuyauterie, le bilan est pauvre.
Les routes romaines étant essentiellement construites pour les messagers et les armées, le reste du fret commercial s’opère essentiellement sur les voix secondaires. Ainsi, transporter une cargaison de céréales d’Alexandrie vers Rome revient moins cher que de la faire venir de l’intérieur de l’Italie.
Agriculture
L’agriculture romaine fut dévastée par le monétarisme et l’aristotélisme. Dans les propriétés immenses, 20, 30 à 50 fois la taille d’une ferme familiale (comme celle de Montmaurin, en Haute-Garonne, d’environ 10 000 hectares), les esclaves cultivent d’une façon extensive des produits de plus en plus orientés vers l’exportation (vin, huile d’olive) et de moins en moins de céréales.
Semblable aux physiocrates, et convaincu que c’est la terre et non les hommes qui produisent la richesse, Caton, le massacreur de Carthage, écrit dans son Economie Rurale (I,CXXXVI) :
« Souvenez-vous qu’un champ très productif, comme un homme prodigue, est ruineux, s’il occasionne un excès de dépenses. Si vous me demandez quel est le meilleur domaine, je vous répondrai :sur un domaine de cent arpents et bien situé, la vigne est la meilleure récolte, si elle est productive. Je place ensuite un potager arrosable ; au troisième rang, une oseraie ; au quatrième, l’olivier ; au cinquième, une prairie ; au sixième, les céréales ; au septième, un taillis ; puis un verger et, enfin, une forêt de chênes. »
Bien que l’on élève dans d’énormes ranchs des chevaux de course pour le cirque, les animaux de trait et par conséquent les engrais, ne sont guère de mise sous l’Empire romain. Il faut attendre le Xe en Europe du Nord (et même la fin du XVIIe en Angleterre…) pour voir apparaître le collier rigide (inventé en Chine au Ve siècle) qui prend appui sur les épaules du cheval, pour révolutionner l’agriculture. Possédant une force équivalant à celle d’un bœuf, le cheval de trait peut déplacer la moitié plus de poids par seconde et par distance.
Cette politique de croissance zéro dans les campagnes provoque un véritable exode rural, créant les conditions d’une famine et alourdissant encore les charges fiscales pesant sur ceux qui restent. Ceux qui fuient la campagne trouvent à Rome les « annona », une aide alimentaire instaurée dès -500, dont bénéficient 200.000 personnes en -130, pour passer à 320.000, soit un quart, sinon la moitié de la population.
Le Cirque et les jeux
A Rome, l’astuce des maîtres consiste à laisser leurs esclaves en semi-liberté pour les faire bénéficier de cette nourriture gratuite résultant du pillage des récoltes de Sicile, d’Égypte et d’Afrique du Nord.
A l’époque de Claude (+50), Rome ne compte pas moins de 159 jours fériés par an et en +354, ce chiffre atteint les 200 !
Pour occuper cette foule et la désinhiber de la violence du système et des guerres, une mise en scène permanente est organisée autour d’une culture de la mort. Déjà, la perspective d’un « no future » est si forte que beaucoup d’hommes libres de Rome, convaincus de l’inutilité de leur existence, s’enregistrent volontairement comme gladiateur afin de ne jamais avoir à subir la dépendance matérielle.
De 120 gladiateurs engagés à lutter, leur nombre passe à 350 couples qui s’affrontent en duels sous Trajan, et après la conquête de la Dacie, 117 jours de célébration voient s’opposer non moins de 4941 paires de gladiateurs ! Jeux et paris vont alors bon train.
Sous Trajan, le Circus Maximus, un hippodrome construit en -329 où se déroulent 24 courses par jour, mesurant 600 mètres sur 200 et pouvant accueillir jusqu’à 255 000 spectateurs, ne connaîtra rien de comparable, si ce n’est le stade de Berlin, construit par les nazis en 1936. Les représentations théâtrales sont d’une vulgarité extrême et le public connaît généralement les chansons et les textes par cœur.
« L’âne d’or » d’Apulée (v.125 – v.180), met en scène un coït avec un âne et, plus tard, une crucifixion « life » est incorporée dans une pièce.
Le « Colisée », un amphithéâtre construit sous Flavien, vers 70, peut recevoir jusqu’à 50 000 personnes. Grâce à des astuces techniques, le plateau se transforme en petit lac pour figurer des joutes navales. Mais c’est généralement moins romantique.
Le seul jour de l’inauguration, non moins de cinq mille animaux sont mis à mort au cours de combats divers. Des lions sont lâchés sur des buffles, des ours contre des panthères, des rhinocéros contre des éléphants, des gladiateurs contre des tigres, etc.
Le bilan mortel est impressionnant ! Pour ne donner que quelques exemples des plus sanglants :
- Le retour victorieux de Trajan du royaume dace provoqua le sacrifice de 11 000 animaux.
- Le venatio au Circus Maximus de 169 av. JC vit mourir 63 léopards, 40 ours et plusieurs éléphants.
- En 55 av. JC, ce fut 500 lions, 410 panthères et léopards et 18 éléphants qui périrent en cinq jours.
- La même année, Pompée célèbre l’inauguration de son théâtre avec 410 panthères et 600 lions.
- En l’honneur de Jules César, 400 lions moururent en une journée.
- A une autre 500 fantassins affrontèrent 20 éléphants et 20 autres montés d’hommes et de tourelles.
- 500 ours furent exécutés sous l’ordre de Caligula pour sa sœur Drusilla.
- 5 000 bêtes moururent pour l’inauguration du Colisée
Ken Kronberg dans son étude très complète, constate que,
« Répétée partout dans tous les amphithéâtres de l’empire, cette boucherie rituelle a conduit à l’extinction de l’éléphant d’Afrique du Nord, de l’hippopotame nubien et du lion de Mésopotamie. »
D’ailleurs, chaque matin, avant l’arrivée des nobles dans les stades, les criminels en tous genres (terme qui s’applique également aux chrétiens) sont jetés en pâture aux fauves pour les mettre en appétit. Les crucifixions n’ont d’ailleurs pas été inventées pour les chrétiens.
A Lutetia (Paris), rappelez-vous que Montmartre vient de « Mont des Martyrs », c’est-à-dire l’endroit où l’on exécute les condamnés à mort.
A Lugdunum (Lyon), la « Croix Rousse » désigne un lieu similaire, car on brûlait les cadavres sur les croix pour prévenir les épidémies. L’omniprésence de la cruauté froide et calculée et de la mort arbitraire semble avoir eu le même effet que certains de nos jeux vidéos violents d’aujourd’hui : désinhiber les hommes en les familiarisant avec la barbarie.
D’ailleurs, à Carthage, après le massacre d’une grande partie de la population, on trouva dans les rues, non seulement des cadavres d’enfants, de femmes, de vieillards et d’hommes, mais aussi des chiens coupés en morceaux et des membres épars d’animaux…
Conclusion
Dans cette société romaine, il est clair que la vie d’un individu, surtout dépourvu de pouvoir, n’a aucune valeur. Mais ce pouvoir de vie et de mort, véritable culte du sang, dont Rome dispose, ce pouvoir de ne pas respecter la vie humaine sera en réalité la faiblesse mortelle d’une culture tragique, relativement apte à s’adapter mais incapable de se changer.
Shakespeare, dans Jules César, l’a parfaitement identifié :
CESAR :
« …Calpurnia que voici, ma femme, me retient.
Elle vient de rêver que ma statue,
Comme une fontaine à cent bouches,
Versait un sang où de nombreux Romains
Vigoureux, souriants, trempaient leurs mains,
Et cela lui parait prophétique, un présage
De malheurs imminents. Et à genoux
Elle m’a supplié de ne pas sortir aujourd’hui. »
(acte I, scène II)
L’un des comploteurs impliqué dans l’assassinat de César utilisera son orgueil pour l’amener sur le lieu du crime :
DECIUS :
« Ce rêve est tout à fait mal interprété.
C’est une heureuse vision, de bon augure.
Votre statue versant par tant de bouches
Un sang où des Romains qui sourient se baignent,
Signifie que la grande Rome puisera
Dans votre sang sa vigueur ; que de grands hommes
S’y presseront pour teindre des emblèmes,
Pour empourprer de futures reliques…
Tel est le sens du songe, Calpurnia. »
Ceux qui ne comprennent pas les erreurs axiomatiques de leur propre culture sont condamnés à répéter les erreurs de l’histoire. Tel est le sort qui guette aujourd’hui les oligarchies imbéciles. Après cinquante ans de pillage par le FMI et la Banque mondiale, aggravé par l’émergence de bulles financières incontrôlables, le système court rapidement à sa perte. L’écroulement de l’URSS, en 1989, a fait revivre la dangereuse illusion d’un « moment unilatéral », capable d’engendrer l’utopie d’un empire mondial.
Le dernier « moment unilatéral » de ce type intervint en 1946, lorsque Bertrand Russell demanda une « attaque préventive » nucléaire contre l’URSS avant qu’elle ne se dote d’armes de destruction massive équivalant à l’arsenal occidental.
Aujourd’hui, sous couvert d’éliminer la menace du terrorisme et des « Etats-voyous », et derrière les prophéties d’un « choc de civilisations », nous entendons de nouveau : « Carthago delenda est » !
Mais croyez-vous réellement que l’Irak soit la nouvelle Carthage ? Non, Carthage, c’est vous et moi, c’est l’Europe en passe de devenir le véritable compétiteur global par sa politique d’intégration eurasiatique, du Portugal à la mer de Chine.
Peut-être même Carthage est-elle davantage encore cette amitié franco-allemande qui, comme Numance à l’époque romaine, par l’exemplarité de son indépendance, représente une exception intolérable. Ne vous y trompez donc pas, les empires n’ont pas d’alliés, ils n’ont que vassaux et rebelles, chacun reconnaissant à sa façon la supériorité et le prestige de l’Empire.
La bataille n’est donc pas celle du petit jardin pacifique de Kant (l’Europe) contre Hobbes (le droit du plus fort), comme Robert Kagan le conjecture, mais celle d’Augustin contre l’Empire romain, car cet empire touche déjà à sa fin et ce n’est pas une nouvelle croisade qui le fera perdurer. A l’administration américaine, nous disons donc volontiers ce que le devin disait à Jules César : « Crains les ides de mars ».
Addendum : Une information vient cruellement conforter notre analyse. Début mars, Ed Koch, ancien maire de New York, inconditionnel de la guerre contre l’Irak et donc exaspéré par l’opposition française, aurait déclaré, « Omnia Gallia delenda est » (Il faut détruire toute la Gaulle).
Articles et livres consultés :
- Choisy Auguste, Histoire de l’Architecture, Bibliothèque de l’Image, Paris 1996.
- Goldsworthy Adrian, Les guerres romaines, Editions Autrement, Paris 2000.
- Kronberg Kenneth, « How the Romans nearly destroyed civilization », dans New Solidarity, 1983.
- Mac Mullen Ramsay, « Le déclin de Rome et la corruption du pouvoir », dans Les Belles Lettres, 1991.
- Saint-Augustin, La Cité de Dieu », Desclée de Brouwer, 1960, Paris.
- Shakespeare, Jules César, Folio, Gallimard.
- Suétone, La Vie des douze Césars, Folio, Gallimard.
- Tite Live, Histoire Romaine, Livres XXVI à XXX, Garnier-Flammarion, 1994, Paris.
- Weil Simone, « Quelques réflexions sur les origines de l’Hitlérisme », 1939, Œuvres Complètes, Vol. II, Gallimard, 1989, Paris.
Thanks to WEST’s new record, world’s nuclear fusion community moving forward
On Monday May 27, 2024, Karel Vereycken talked to physicist and nuclear fusion specialist Alain Bécoulet for Nouvelle Solidarité. He has been in charge of the ITER project’s engineering department since February 2020.
ITER is a large-scale scientific experiment intended to prove the viability of fusion as an energy source. ITER is currently under construction in the south of France. In an unprecedented international effort, seven partners—China, the European Union, India, Japan, Korea, Russia and the United States—have pooled their financial and scientific resources to build the biggest fusion reactor in history.
Alain Bécoulet is a former research director at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), and in particular director of the IRFM, the Institut de recherche sur la fusion par confinement magnétique (Institute for Research on Fusion by Magnetic Confinement).
Karel Vereycken: Mr. Bécoulet, good morning, it’s great to have you on the phone.
Alain Bécoulet: Hello Mr. Vereycken, if I’ve understood correctly, you’re interested in what happened at WEST, in connection with the press releases that went out just about everywhere around May 15. (more below)
That’s right; I’ll give you my impressions and you can correct me. I understand that the Tore SUPRA Tokamak (in southern France)1, who with six minutes held a world record in duration till 2021, was a bit like your baby.
To tell the truth, I was director of the IRFM2, in charge of Tore SUPRA. If it can be considered “my baby”, it’s because under my governance it was radically modified and upgraded, and renamed “WEST”. Before me, it was Robert Aymar‘s baby3.
Right! But in WEST, it’s the W that does it all. And it’s a W for tungsten, a very heat resisting material that absorbs less than graphite and makes the machine more efficient?
Yes, it does. The major change we made with WEST, is that we went from a circular-limiter machine 4 to a “divertor” machine.5
On Tore SUPRA, the vertical plasma action was a circle resting on a graphite limiter and the plasma simply touched it.
For some years now, we’ve discovered that making a plasma in the shape of a D, or in the shape of a fish with an X point — called a “divertor” — produces much better results in terms of confining heat and impurities, particles, etc. So it was time for Tore SUPRA to go there.
At the same time, Tore SUPRA itself made it clear for us, that for ITER, it was not possible to continue with carbon – which was ITER’s original intention – and so ITER switched and was reconfigured to tungsten.
That’s when we took the opportunity to install a cooled tungsten divertor in Tore SUPRA. What’s more, Tore SUPRA’s mission has always been, even before ITER – we’ve been talking about it for a very long time now – the development and integration of technological solutions, and not so much performance-fusion.
If you put tritium in Tore SUPRA, you’re not going to get much in the way of power: it’s too small and not powerful enough in any ways to make fusion reactions of any note; but on the other hand, it’s perfectly relevant for all technological developments – it was on Tore SUPRA, it has to be recalled, that the first successful full-scale test of the superconducting coils now used in ITER took place!
I’m fully aware of that.
It was also Tore SUPRA that supplied all the rules for actively cooling all the components in front of the plasma, including diagnostics [i.e. measuring instruments], etc.; not forgetting solutions for continuous additional heating, in short a huge amount of technology.
So the idea, in the transition from Tore SUPRA to WEST, was to continue along the path of the “actively cooled tungsten divertor”.
I think the Koreans, too, with KSTAR, had already.…
There are several superconducting machines that have made equivalent advances –more successive than simultaneous– and that have inspired others; in this case, before talking about KSTAR, the machine that is closest to WEST, its little sister – you’re going to smile, but I didn’t call it WEST for nothing — is a machine that started up when Tore SUPRA was already operating, in Hefei, China, called EAST — with which we have cooperated enormously, both on coils and on plasma components, etc.
So the two laboratories have cooperated enormously; I chose the name WEST because we wanted to change the name of Tore SUPRA, to rejuvenate it and mark the fact that we were making this technology; so we called it WEST, a sort of sister machine to EAST, and the two machines really work together (EAST has now installed a tungsten divertor, etc.). ); even some of the modifications we made to WEST were made in cooperation, in partnership with the EAST machine, with the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which supplied us with components, in particular the power supplies for the divertor coils, the new ICRH antennas, etc.; we had all this done by the Chinese.6
It’s extraordinary that this kind of cooperation can still take place in this world of conflict…
It really is! As for KSTAR, it’s quite a similar machine too, but I’d call it less pioneering. It’s only now arriving in this kind of world; it’s a long way behind –not that I’m blaming them, because since the teams are smaller, it’s more difficult– but that doesn’t stop us from cooperating a lot with KSTAR.
The only real difference with WEST lies in the coils, which are all inside a single cryostat (refrigeration system) – as with ITER, whereas in Tore SUPRA, when we built it, the coils were each in a separate cryostat.
To sum up: today, the large superconducting machines accompanying the ITER project are WEST, EAST, KSTAR and now the new JT60SA tokamak which has just gone into operation in Japan. It’s the size of the JET (at Culham in the UK) in superconductor, but doesn’t yet have a tungsten environment, and won’t for several years yet; so it’s not yet fully in a world as relevant, but it’s coming! And because it’s larger, it’ll probably outperform those EAST, WEST, etc. machines.
The press, and the official press release, reports a 15% gain in energy produced – which is still less than the energy spent on the reaction – and at the same time, they talk of a doubling of plasma density.
Please note: machines like WEST, EAST and KSTAR will never produce power fusion, for at least two good reasons:
- they’re too small;
- they’re not designed to hold tritium.
So there’s no fusion in these machines. Also, beware of energy gains and the like: these are gains in energy stored inside the machine, but not at all in energy supplied, in energy produced by fusion energy.
It’s not yet “break-even” (when the energy produced exceeds that of the reaction).
In fact, we improve confinement and increase confinement time. This improves the possibility of fusion, but we don’t enjoy fusion in these machines, which are too small and not powerful enough for that, particularly in terms of core plasma.
On the other hand, they are used because their edge plasma, i.e. the plasma inside the plasma interacting with structures such as tungsten, etc., is very similar to ITER’s. That’s why they’re so interesting, and as they can produce very long-lasting plasmas, the tests carried out in these machines are perfectly relevant to ITER.
So I’d like to come back to one of your questions, namely how this advances the promises of ITER. ITER is being built, and things are being manufactured, but ITER is a kind of big eater, constantly asking: “Can you continue the research?”
Obviously, we’re into things we’ve never tested, so anything we can test, anything that can debug things for us, is very welcome. So these machines, in particular WEST, EAST, etc., are helping us to consolidate our position, both in terms of design and in terms of manufacturing solutions –a divertor like the tungsten divertor currently cooled, it works!
And what WEST has just demonstrated– compared with the last time, when it achieved very high performance, particularly in terms of duration, with the Tore SUPRA configuration, on a carbon limiter, etc. — it did so in even more relevant conditions, thanks to a tungsten divertor.
The result of WEST was 364 seconds, or 6 minutes and 4 seconds, with an injected energy of 1.15 GJ, a stationary temperature of 50 million°C (4 keV) and an electron density twice that of the discharges obtained in the previous tokamak configuration, that of Tore SUPRA.
However, what’s really new and very important for ITER is that when these machines do this, it’s with components facing the plasma that are the same as ITER’s. We’ve taken great care to ensure that the WEST divertor has exactly the same technology as the ITER divertor. That’s how we test this technology, over timescales and with power flows arriving on these components that are highly relevant, as they are representative of the conditions in which they will live in ITER.
So ITER has become a globalized scientific experiment, decentralized and centralized at the same time.
ITER is the place where all the world’s fusion knowledge is being synthesized; but this process didn’t stop the day we signed the treaty, it’s being synthesized every day!
We continue to feed ITER with scientific and technical results. For example, if a machine says to us “wait a minute, you’ve done that, but we’ve found results that are different now that we’ve done more work”, we look at that very carefully, to find out whether or not there are any impacts. We’re in constant contact with all these people, to find out what’s coming out of the labs, experiments and simulations, and to find out whether or not there’s an impact on ITER, in which case we’re able to rectify the situation according to the scale of things
This sharing of cooperative data takes place in conditions of great trust?
It’s a scientific community that works like a scientific community, with no preconceptions, no ulterior motives, nothing at all.
A bit like the astronauts on the international space station?
Absolutely. We used to say “in the old days, it was taken for granted”, but now it’s true that it’s become almost surprising. If there’s a result in a Russian or Chinese machine, we have access to it and then we understand, we work, we discuss with them, it’s really very open.
That’s very promising.
We have to fight against the journalists who love to wonder whether there’s competition, whether someone has won or whatever…. That’s not what we’re about at all; we’re about cooperative scientific development. Everyone works in their own corner, of course, but for everyone! There’s no such thing as “I know, I know”, no, none of that exists in the world of fusion.
In the article I’m preparing, I’ll conclude by saying that the big problem with ITER is that there’s only one problem!
In a way, it’s almost true, it’s not the “big problem”, but it’s something that doesn’t encourage acceleration; competition encourages acceleration, we agree on that.
After all, the Chinese have 6 fusion reactors…
Be careful, they’re not “reactors”, beware of the vocabulary. They’re experiments, Tokamaks, plasma experiments, all much smaller. The biggest one I mentioned, in Japan, is ten times smaller than ITER!
Now there are start-ups and others, which we’re hosting here (at the CEA center in Cadarache, France) for three days; 50 start-ups are here, downstairs in the amphitheater, chatting with us; they’re all convinced they’re making reactors, but no! They’re just doing experiments, manips, experimental prototypes. Yes, even ITER isn’t a reactor. Mind you, the meaning of the word “reactor” is to produce electricity or energy, and we’re not there yet!
If someone tells you he is selling you a reactor, you can laugh in his face, because it’s not true, and it will remain so for a long time, unfortunately or fortunately, I don’t know. As far as the reactor phase is concerned, we’ve only just begun, with ITER, the transition to industry. That’s what we’re also doing these days, looking at how to transfer knowledge from laboratories – and ITER is THE world laboratory, in the true sense of the word, in the sense of a public research laboratory. How do we begin to transfer this to the industrialists who will have to build the reactors? But the time scale here isn’t next week!
Wouldn’t your real competitor be the National Ignition Facility (NIF)?7
Not even close! Because with the Americans, it’s in a way even worse, because they’re even less developed in their public research, it’s a long way from maturity. They once did a demonstration in a machine that wasn’t designed for it, and so on.
So if we wanted to go from the NIF to the reactor, we’d already have to make up all the ground we’ve accumulated since the state of magnetic fusion with the big JET experiments in 1997. So we’re almost 30 years away from reaching the levels of technological maturity, integration and overall maturity needed to move towards a reactor. And we, too, are still a long way from moving towards the reactor.
As far as competitors are concerned, to be honest, no one feels like a competitor today, and this is no joke: may the best man win! The problem is so complicated, and the stakes so high, that whoever comes up with the solution will have us all on our feet! There’s no such thing as competition.
We’re starting to see, with these new start-ups, people saying “yes, but we’re moving towards industrial solutions, etc., so we may develop patents that we obviously don’t want to reveal or sell”. Fair enough!
But hey, if they know how to make one of the “technological bricks” and it has a patent, good for them. But that’s not even going to stop us talking. A patent, once you’ve registered it, isn’t a secret, it’s simply something that belongs to you and that you can put on the public square; whoever uses it is just going to have to pay for it, that’s all. So it’s not a war or anything.
The problem is really extremely complicated, and we’re now entering the pre-industrial world of the thing, which is very exciting, isn’t it! I started my career as a theoretician 35 years ago, and I can tell you that we were really on the calculator and not even on the computer yet. Now we’re in: 1/ a complete demonstration of the feasibility of the whole system with ITER, which is in a way the end (the objective) of fundamental public research; 2/ the moment when we’ll say “here’s the great recipe, now it’s up to you to industrialize it, improve it, make it economically viable, etc.”. But ITER still has to show that we can do it, and I believe we can, even though we’re still building the machine and haven’t yet made plasma! But then again, on paper it’s always beautiful…
What do you see as the final hurdles? What more can the public authorities in the various countries do?
I’d encourage you to keep an eye on things until October-November, when the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) will issue a strategic document, prepared by all of us –and I’m one of its key authors. It’s a global strategy document on the development of fusion energy, i.e. the production of energy through fusion.
It’s a very interesting document which, in around twenty pages, covers all the regulatory, technological, scientific and industrial aspects – everything you could possibly dream of: it’s got it all!
And it gives a great deal of information on the challenges facing this community – which is in the process of moving from a purely public research community to a mixed public-private community, moving towards industry, etc. – and on what remains to be done by this community, in terms of nuclear regulations, industrialization, work on the overall efficiency of all sub-systems, and availability (a reactor can’t just run for three minutes every day, it has to work 24 hours a day for 40 years).
This strategic document, which will be issued by the International Agency, should enable all players – I’d almost say “outsiders”: investors, the press, politicians, etc. – to understand where the merger stands and what remains to be done. So it’s a fairly ambitious document, with such a lofty goal, but one that has been made simple and readable for once; we’ve put a lot of effort into it, and I think we’ve succeeded.
It’s really condensed: each paragraph covers 40 or 50 years of research (!), but I think it’s understandable; at the moment it’s being edited by the IAEA, and will be published in early autumn.
Ok, we’ll watch that.
And finally, here are my thoughts on what remains to be done for fusion:
- New technological building blocks. There are things that even ITER won’t be able to do, such as fully demonstrating the closure of the tritium cycle – how to make tritium, and how to really burn it in situ; we’re going to do a few demonstrations, but we don’t yet have the complete cycle, and we won’t have it just with ITER.
- Materials. Since magnetic fusion generates very energetic neutrons, and lots of them – a machine like ITER is designed to live for a certain time with a certain plasma rhythm, so it has no problem surviving these neutrons. But if we built the same ITER and ran it for 40 years, 24 hours a day, it wouldn’t last; its materials wouldn’t stand up to the shock. So we need other materials, and materials research and development.
- This brings us to maintenance: how can we learn to intervene in these kinds of objects without disturbing them too much, working with robotics and appropriate intelligence to understand these extremely complex systems? So we also need to model them; some elements are very difficult to manufacture, so we need to think about how to work on the design so that manufacturers have less difficulty in doing what they’re asked to do, etc.
- There are also nuclear regulations.
Is this new measuring device just demonstrated on WEST really a breakthrough?
The first to communicate this WEST result were the Americans, which surprised me, but hey, why not?
Yes, it surprised me too.
Because of an unfortunate sentence at the beginning of their article, we got the impression that WEST was a machine from the Princeton laboratory!
Yes, that’s right!
International Cooperation
I spoke to you about the collaboration with China; when I created WEST, we set up a collaborative, partnership-based process that is almost even more ambitious than ITER. We partnered some thirty laboratories around the world to help us build WEST. It thus became a kind of international machine, operated by the CEA without any problems, but an international machine, and we played the same role as ITER: we tried to do what we call supply in kind –I mentioned the Chinese, who gave us power supplies, heating antennas, etc., but there are many countries like that: the Indians have manufactured and supplied us with things, and in this case the Princeton laboratory has designed, manufactured and installed a diagnostic: what you call a measuring instrument is in fact an advance that we test on the machine, and the Americans, or the Princeton people now, can now say “there, we know how to do that, and the proof: we tested it there and there, etc.”. You can think of these major research instruments (like WEST, EAST, etc.), particularly in the field of fusion, as test benches for all kinds of things.
Do we have a machine that actually makes plasma? It’s a bit like CERN (Geneva based particle accellerator), where you’ve got a device that accelerates particles, and then you’ve got lots of people who come to watch, put particles together, make them collide like this, put them in this detector, make them do something, and exploit the science that goes with it.
A Tokamak is also a test bench somewhere, for testing components with plasma, diagnostics, heating systems and so on. So it lends itself well to partnership, because you’ve got a central unit, a central operator who’s going to do the bulk of the machine, who’s going to rectify the coils or the enclosures, etc.; and then afterwards, you can have a huge number of people who are going to come and contribute to a brick that we’re going to put into this machine.
And WEST works with China, with Korea, with many French laboratories –CNRS laboratories and universities that simply bring us diagnostics or simulations – with the United States, with India and with many other countries. And we have a steering committee; for this machine, it’s not just the CEA that decides on its experimental plan: once a year, people from all these labs get together to examine what we’ve done and what we want to do with this machine. Remember that these are always integrated contributions, mixing technology and physics.
It’s wonderful! Thank you for your answers, which have shown us the global, shared process towards a more peaceful world.
We’re trying… We believe in scientific diplomacy here. It’s not easy, it’s no easier than normal diplomacy, but scientific diplomacy does exist, it’s an aspect we believe in and demonstrate every day, we show that it exists and that it also contributes, effectively, to the planet’s progress, even if sometimes it’s more difficult… I’m used to comparing it to sports or artistic diplomacy; the Olympic Games shouldn’t turn as sour as it’s turning, it doesn’t make sense.
Thank you, congratulations, we’re proud of you and your teams, keep up the good work!
Thank you very much. See you soon.
- With a major radius of 2.25m (machine centre to plasma centre) and a minor radius of 0,70m, Tore Supra (before it was reconfigured as WEST) was one of the largest tokamaks in the world. Its main feature was the superconducting toroidal magnets which enabled generation of a permanent toroidal magnetic field. Tore Supra was also the only tokamak with plasma facing components actively cooled. Theses two features allow the study of plasma with long pulse duration. ↩︎
- Institut de recherche sur la fusion par confinement magnétique (Institute for Research on Fusion by Magnetic Confinement. ↩︎
- Robert Aymar was the Director General of CERN (2004–2008), serving a five-year term in that role. In 1977, Robert Aymar was appointed Head of the Tore Supra Project, to be constructed at Cadarache (France). In 1990, he was appointed Director of the Direction des Sciences de la Matière of the CEA, where he directed a wide range of basic research programmes, both experimental and theoretical. ↩︎
- The “Limiter” of the Tore SUPRA tokamak (made of graphite), was the element that extracted most of the energy contained in the plasma (in the shape of a flat circular ring located in the lower part of the donut shaped machine).
↩︎ - In WEST, the actively cooled 456-component divertor at the bottom of the vacuum vessel extracts the heat and ash produced by the fusion reaction, minimizes plasma contamination and protects the surrounding walls from thermal and neutron loads. ↩︎
- Most of this industrial production (i.e. 16,000 blocks of tungsten), was carried out by AT&M (China), with the support of the Chinese laboratory ASIPP as part of the joint CEA-China collaboration (SIFFER, SIno French Fusion Energy centeR). Already, in 2016, the Institute of Plasma Physics (ASIPP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), had supplied ICRH (Ion Cyclotron Resonant Heating) antennas for Tore SUPRA. ↩︎
- In December 2022, an NIF experiment used 2.05 megajoules of laser energy to produce 3.15 megajoules of fusion energy.
↩︎
1953-1968: When « Water for Peace » was at the Center of US Politics
By Karel Vereycken, May 2024.
The current unprecedented bloody extermination of the Palestinians in Gaza reminds historians of some of the darkest pages of European history. Between 1940 and 1943, some 300,000 Jews confined in the Ghetto of Warsaw were killed by bullet or gas, combined with 92,000 victims of starvation and related diseases, the Ghetto’s Uprising, and the casualties of its final destruction.
Not in our name and never again! Only an immediate and durable cease-fire, concluded in the context of regional agreements for mutually beneficial reconstruction, can offer a perspective where peace becomes thinkable either in the form of two States, one State, or maybe even better, as a confederation. That might look ambitious and even Utopian.
This article looks at the ambitious proposals put on the table after the six days war of 1967, when major forces in the world stepped in and proposed, including by the smart use of civilian nuclear power, to increase the carrying capacity of the entire region. Nuclear desalination facilities and abundant energy from nuclear and hydropower, they thought, can provide the optimum conditions for both Israeli’s and Palestinian’s to have access to abundant fresh water for agriculture, industry and living.
The shock of the six year’s war
In June 1967, following border clashes over water resources and what appeared as a military mobilization of its Arab neighbors, Israel staged a sudden preemptive war against Egypt, Jordan and Syria.
- On June 5th, it destroyed more than 90 percent of Egypt’s air force on the tarmac. A similar air assault incapacitated the Syrian air force. Within three days the Israelis had achieved an overwhelming victory on the ground.
- On June 7, Israeli forces drove Jordanian forces out of East Jerusalem and most of the West Bank. The UN Security Council called for a cease-fire on June 7 that was immediately accepted by Israel and Jordan. Egypt accepted the following day. Syria held out, however, and continued to shell villages in northern Israel.
- On June 9 Israel launched an assault on the fortified Golan Heights, capturing it from Syrian forces after a day of heavy fighting. Syria accepted the cease-fire on June 10. Israel’s decisive victory included the capture of the Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank, Old City of Jerusalem, and Golan Heights; the status of these territories subsequently became a major point of contention in the Arab-Israeli conflict.
The Arab countries’ losses in the conflict were disastrous. Egypt’s casualties numbered more than 11,000, with 6,000 for Jordan and 1,000 for Syria, compared with only 700 for Israel. The conflict resulted in hundreds of thousands of refugees and brought more than one million Palestinians in the occupied territories under Israeli rule.
Months after the war, in November, the United Nations passed UN Resolution 242, which called for Israel’s withdrawal from the territories it had captured in the war in exchange for lasting peace.
For most western elites, including most Jewish elites all over the world, the 6 day war came both as a shock and a reminder that the two main causes of war had been left unsolved: refugees (that of Palestinians pushed out and Jews arriving) and water access for all.
The « Johnston Plan » for water sharing
In the early 50’s, at the request of the United Nations Refugee Works Administration (UNRWA), experts of the US Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), had designed an equitable water sharing program for the entire Jordan basin involving Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria.
Just as the orginal TVA, by building irrigation canals and dams, the program would have allowed the exansion of irrigated farmland and upshifting the economy and the living standards with energy from hydro-power.
In 1953, Eisenhower, pressured by his Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, sent Eric Johnston as his envoy to convince all the nations of the region to adopt the scheme known as the “Johnston plan.” To avoid countries willing to escape colonial exploitation joining the Communist or neutralist bloc, they argues, the US should offer development programs and keep them on the right side of history.
In Southwest Asia, a wonderful and well thought water sharing program was about to be adopted.
Unfortunately, Eisenhower, on March 28, 1956, approved the secret OMEGA Memorandum whose aim was to effect a reorientation of Nasser’s policies toward cooperation with the West while diminishing what were seen as his harmful attempts to influence other Middle East countries. Nasser, the first after Nepal, without informing his allies, had recognized Communist China on May 16. Pertaining to measures directed at Egypt, the provisions included a delay by the United States and Britain in concluding negotiations on financing the Aswan Dam.
As a result, John Foster Dulles, in cahoots with the British and the US southern cotton lobby1 , went ahead with suspending US financing of the Aswan dam (90%) which Nasser needed to irrigate farmland at home.
On Thursday July 19, 1956, Dulles asked the Egyptian Ambassador in Washington, Mr. Ahmed Hussein, to come to his office. When he arrived Mr. Dulles handed him a letter announcing the withdrawal of the United States offer to grant $56,000,000 towards financing the construction of the High Dam at Aswan.2
This decision unleashed a chain of events leading to the famous “Suez crisis” which Eisenhower fortunately brought to a halt once he realized it could end up in a nuclear conflict.
As a result, the most precious aspect of the “Johnston plan” for the ME, that of mutual trust building around the perspective of a shared, common future, was ruined after the Suez affair.
As a result, those that should have been partners of one single global plan to share the waters of the Jordan basin, went for it alone. Israel went ahead with its own National Water Carrier, tapping fresh water from the Sea of Galilee into a water conveyance systems bringing water from the northern border with Lebanon to the Negev desert deep South.
Jordan, with US financing, built the Eastern Ghor water conveyance system, now called “King Abdullah Canal”, to provide water for Jordan’s agriculture and capital while Syria constructed a dam on the Yarmuk, one of the tributaries of the Jordan river. 3
Nuclear desalination, the talk of the Day
Immediately after the six days war, however, the perspective of a massive investment in water and energy to solve the refugee and water crisis in the Middle East, became the talk of the day.
By these dramatic events, thanks to the men and women willing to answer them, the science, the technology and many of the plans elaborated between 1945 and 1967 to use nuclear power for peaceful aims came back on the table.
Key in this was leading US nuclear physicist Alvin Weinberg, who was the administrator of Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) during and after the Manhattan Project.
Weinberg was appointed in 1960 to the President’s Science Advisory Committee in the Eisenhower administration and later served on it in the Kennedy administration.
Weinberg inspired and organized his networks to propose projects for the peaceful use on civilian nuclear power. Weinberg’s career was brutally terminated when he was fired by Nixon in 1973 for pleading, just as Edward Teller did before his death, in favor of thorium fueled molten salt reactors (which don’t produce plutonium for nuclear bombs).
Water for Peace Conference of May 1967
Tragically and sadly, hardly three weeks before the Six day war, an international conference on “Water for Peace”, was held May 23-31, 1967, in Washington. President Lyndon Johnson (democrat) addressed the conference during the opening ceremonies, pledging that the United States would:
« continue work in every area which holds promise for the world’s water needs, » and would « share the fruits of this technology [nuclear desalination] with all of those who wish to share it with us. » 4
The Department of State Office of International Scientific and Technological Affairs considered the conference a « complete success, » and an internal report noted that,
« 94 countries were represented together with 24 international organizations; 635 official delegates, 61 participants from international organizations, and over 2,000 observers attended. » 5
One of the technical papers presented at the Water for Peace conference, entitled « Desalted Water for Agriculture » by Weinberg’s friend and colleague R. Philip Hammond, hypothesized that, with demonstrated methods of agriculture and « virtually demonstrated » methods of nuclear desalting, food could be grown with water costing 3 cents per day per person.
Alvin Weinberg was convinced, based on the work of his own institution, that these price estimates were « not unreasonable. »
After reading the paper in draft, Weinberg determined that more research was needed, and passed the paper on to Dr. J. George Harrar at the Rockefeller Foundation because of its « longstanding interest in the development of countries, such as Mexico, that suffer from a lack of water. »
Harrar, speaking about a recent discussion he had with Israeli President David Ben-Gurion, said:
« I understand that it is his hope and plan that atomic power for water desalination may become a reality in the Negev one day. »6
Weinberg reported that Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Chairman Glenn T. Seaborg and AEC Commissioner James T. Ramey had “expressed interest in such agro-industrial complexes in several of their recent speeches. » 7(*5)
In a visionary speech, called “The Next Stage of Nuclear Energy,” Weinberg developed even more this idea of building “Food factories in the desert”:
“One can now visualize a new kind of desert agriculture, conducted in units so highly rationalized as to be designated « food factories » rather than farms. In these food factories, plants would be watered and fertilized at precisely the right time, and in precisely the right amounts. Fortunately fertile coastal deserts suitable for such food factories occur in many parts of the world.
The food factory would naturally be accompanied by other energy-intensive chemical processes, particularly those based on electrolytic hydrogen. I have already mentioned production of ammonia; one could imagine other processes such as reduction of iron ore by hydrogen, or electrolytic refining of bauxite to produce aluminium, or production of caustic and chlorine, and thence polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics.
Altogether what one contemplates is the nuclear powered agro-industrial complex already alluded to by AEC Chairman Seaborg in his opening remarks. This summer we conducted at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory a study under the guidance of Professor E.A. Mason of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to examine in some detail just what such a nuclear powered agro-industrial complex might look like.
Even this near term complex, based on energy from light water reactors, seems surprisingly attractive. In this complex, a variety of crops would be grown on 140,000 acres of irrigated desert. Ammonia, phosphorus from phosphate rock, caustic, chlorine, and salt would be manufactured.
The total investment (including a 2000 Mwe reactor and a 500 million gallons a day desalting plant) comes to about $900 million. The annual value of products produced is $330 million, of which $100 million are agricultural products.
The profit on the venture is computed to be $136 million per year, or 15% of the capital investment. I believe that the nuclear powered agro-industrial complex may well become an impressively powerful instrument for development. But it is idle to speak of the agro-industrial complex unless the main ingredient — the cheap and reliable reactor — is available.” 8
On June 13, hardly days after the six day’s war, AEC chairman Seaborg wrote a letter to Johnson’s Secretary of State Dean Rusk:
“The recent developments in the Middle East prompt me to recall to your attention certain projects which have been under consideration for this region for some time in the past. I am referring to the two dual-purpose nuclear desalting projects, one proposed for installation in Israel and the other proposed for installation in the United Arab Republic (Egypt and Syria were one single state between 1958 and 1961), which were the subject of your memorandum to the President of May 21, 1966 … It occurs to us that the possible usefulness of these projects in the overall settlement of the Middle East dispute may be rather significant …
As you know, both Israel and the UAR have attached considerable importance to their respective projects. The proposed Israeli project, in particular, always had the advantage of providing Israel with a source of water not subject to interruption by neighboring states and not dependent on the allocation of the already inadequate water resources of the Jordan Valley.
Once again, it seems to me that the recent events may well intensify the problem of water allocation in the area rather than ease it. One or more desalting plants would both add significantly to the total volume of water available to the region …
It is interesting to note that at the recent Water for Peace Conference in Washington, UAR and Israeli representatives participated in a collateral meeting of nations interested in nuclear desalting and reaffirmed the strong interest of their governments in these projects.”
In the same letter, Seaborg underlined that US assistance for a nuclear desalination program,
“could possibly be used to secure Israeli agreement to place its entire nuclear program, including the Dimona project, under IAEA safeguards. It seems to me that the recent events probably increase rather than decrease the danger that one or more of the Middle Eastern countries will feel, however mistakenly, that its best interest in the future would be served by the acquisition of nuclear weapons.”
On June 23, 1967, Lewis Strauss, who was a founding member and, starting 1953, the head of the AEC till 1958, pressured his friend and protector Eisenhower to speak up for nuclear desalination for peace in the Middle East, by giving him the following memo called “A proposal for our Time”:
“Attention to the debates in the United Nations since the end of May must convince the observer that an end to the trouble in the Near East is not in sight. The introduction of a new and dramatic element will be required to establish a climate in which peace can begin to be negotiated. The resources of diplomacy appear exhausted, and the « lie direct » has been exchanged so often that men can hardly be expected to reach agreement by rational discussion in the atmosphere which has been created.
“The two fundamental problems in the Near East are (a) water, and (b) displaced populations. It is these issues which have exacerbated international relationships in that area over the years, and they are not to be resolved by political or military measures. By a simple, bold, and imaginative step, it is in our power to solve both problems … Two of the installations would be located at appropriate points on the Mediterranean coast of Israel and a smaller one at the northern end of the Gulf of Aqaba in either Jordan or Israel, as the most suitable terrain may dictate….
“Were the President of the United States to electrify the world by such a proposal, as President Eisenhower did in his Atoms-for-Peace speech to the United Nations in 1953, it would be hailed and welcomed by millions who now can see no way out of the morass in which the powers are presently floundering with its threat of triggering more widespread war. The proposal might well be the beginning of a new life in the lands of the oldest civilizations.
“The proposal, of course, does not settle the boundary disputes and other acute issues now confronting the belligerents, but their settlement would be immensely accelerated and facilitated by the pressure from all sides to get ahead with such a project where delay would be counted in human lives and misery. It could be announced that no affirmative steps would be taken until negotiations at least began. In the atmosphere that would immediately follow such a proposal, the leaders of the Near Eastern countries would be invited to come together on the basis of the proposals. They have a common forum in the International Atomic Energy Agency.”
“The introduction of fresh water from all three plants into the arid and semi-arid areas would have the effect of opening to settlement many hundred square miles which heretofore have never supported human life (other than on a nomadic basis), and the controversy over the division of the Jordan River would become de minimis.
“The work of building the great plants, laying the pipe lines, constructing reservoirs, power lines, irrigation ditches, etc., will absorb the unskilled labor of thousands of displaced persons. When the plants are in operation, the labor force could be settled in irrigated areas under conditions far superior to any life that they have ever experienced.
“Solely as a measure of magnitude, it might be noted that the completed project will represent substantially less than one year’s expenditure on the moon program. It will pay for itself and return income in perpetuity, retiring the borrowings incurred and rewarding the governments and individuals with vision enough to have subscribed to it initially.
“Cooperation of the Arab and Israeli governments will be necessary in order to agree upon a modus vivendi for allocating water and power, and it will be apparent that any government which simply declined to discuss or participate in such a cooperative arrangement would have to answer to its citizens sooner or later.” 9
Lewis Strauss
Lewis Strauss, started his career, not in nuclear science, but working as an investment banker at the Wall Street investment bank Kuhn, Loeb & Co. On March 5, 1923, he married Alice Hanauer, the daughter of Jerome J. Hanauer, who was one of the Kuhn Loeb partners.
But Strauss was also a philanthropist financing and leading several Jewish organizations. In 1933 he was a member of the executive committee of the American Jewish Committee. He was active in the Jewish Agricultural Society, for whom by 1941 he was honorary president. By 1938 he was also active in the Palestine Development Council, the Baron de Hirsch Fund, and the Union of American Hebrew Congregations.
However, he was not a Zionist and opposed the establishment of a Jewish state in Mandatory Palestine. He did not view Jews as belonging to a nation or a race; he considered himself an American of Jewish religion, and consequently he advocated for the rights of Jews to live as equal and integral citizens of the nations in which they resided.
Politically, Strauss got befriended and worked directly with President Herbert Hoover and felt irritated by FDR.
Edmond de Rothschild
One month after Strauss memo to Eisenhower, on July 18, US Ambassador Bruce reported the fact that French-Swiss banker Edmond Adolphe de Rothschild, in two letters to the London Times, had advocated for three nuclear desalting plants for Israel, Jordan, and the Gaza Strip to assist in the resettlement of more than 200,000 refugees.
This provoked comments and questions in the House of Commons, which generally approved the idea or at least further exploration of it.
British Prime Minister Wilson was convinced of the technical-economic feasibility of the plan, but the Foreign Office was concerned about the cost.
According to Embassy officials in London: “Apart from the obvious political difficulties, it was mainly a question of a very large amount of cheap money, which the UK did not have available.”
However, Edmond de Rothschild was apparently willing to put up 1 million pounds sterling of his own money. 10
Humanitarian and/or Business Plan?
Both Strauss and Rothschild shared the same idea, that of forming a corporation with a charter resembling that of COMSAT, a public, federally funded corporation created in 1962 intended to develop a commercial international satellite communication system. Although Comsat was government regulated, it was equally owned by some major communications corporations and independent investors.
The new corporation, wrote Strauss, should be created,
“with the Government subscribing to half of the stock, the balance to be offered for public subscription in the security markets of the world. The amount thus to be raised, say $200,000,000, would be used to begin construction of the first of three large nuclear plants for the dual purpose of producing kilowatts of electrical energy and desalting sea water, with emphasis on the latter purpose.”
“Private capital both in the United States and Great Britain would certainly respond to the challenge of such an enterprise on the initiative of the Government,” concluded Strauss.
Strauss and Eisenhower
Strauss was a staunch anti-communist and successfully lobbied Truman, who publicly announced the decision, as demanded by Strauss, to develop the hydrogen bomb on January 31, 1950. Less than three years later, the US detonated the world’s first H-bomb, only to have the Soviets follow suit 10 months later. Strauss’ determination to develop the hydrogen bomb was doggedly opposed by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the chairman of the AEC’s general advisory committee who led the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos, New Mexico. Fearing the hydrogen bomb would only accelerate a dangerous Cold War arms race, Oppenheimer had argued for more openness about the size and capabilities of America’s nuclear arsenal, which Strauss thought would only benefit the Soviets.
After leaving the AEC in 1950, Strauss re-entered government when newly elected President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed him as an atomic energy adviser in February 1953. Strauss, who had been a major donor to Eisenhower’s presidential campaign, wielded considerable power as all federal agencies were required to clear their atomic-related activities with him. Months later, Eisenhower asked Strauss to chair the AEC. Strauss agreed on one condition: that Oppenheimer no longer serve as a consultant to the commission…
Strauss’ plan for desalination became known as the “Strauss-Eisenhower plan” because Eisenhower, whose major speech Atoms for Peace at the UNGA in 1953 had been widely welcomed by the American public, published an article, largely inspired by the Strauss 1967 memo and edited by editor in chief of Reader’s Digest Ben Hibbs in that magazine’s June 1968 edition.
The full text of Eisenhower’s article was introduced as early on May 16 in the Congressional record (p. 13756), by Senator James G. Fulton.
Noteworthy, the fact that Robert F. Kennedy, who saved the world from nuclear extinction by using his back channels with Russian officials, was assassinated on June 8 of the same year.
In the overall inspiring article in his Reader’s Digest, former president Eisenhower, visibly convinced by Admiral Lewis Strauss and his banker’s friends such as Edmond de Rothschild who thought it was good business, wrote that:
“There is every reason to suppose that it could be a successful, self-sustaining business enterprise, whose revenues would derive from the sale of it products – water and electricity – to the users. Our government would make an initial investment in some of the corporation’s stock, and the rest would be sold to private investors in the security markets of the world. Additional money would be raised through the international marketing of convertible debentures. We are assured by international bankers that the financial world, under normal conditions, would welcome such an investment opportunity.”
However, Eisenhower made an extremely crucial point, that is very relevant for today:
”Most of the professional diplomats seem to think that we must have peace in the Middle East before the plan can be implemented. I contend that the reverse is true: the proposal itself is a way to peace.”
Unfortunately, in his Reader’s Digest article, the former president, or the editor, or by common decision of both, left out a key passage of Strauss earlier (June 1967) proposal, a passage implicitly proposing to make the Middle East desalting proposal the cornerstone for ending the Cold War!
Strauss, interestingly enough, had changed the axioms of his thinking, because the view he presented in 1967 (start some sort of peaceful cooperation with the USSR) was miles away from his views in 1950 (contain the Soviets at all cost). That said key passage reads as follows:
“Design and construction contracts would be let on bids in the several countries which have had experience in building large nuclear reactors, i.e., the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the USSR.”
Those days Political parties
While today’s US party platforms are utter lunacy, in 1968, when Nixon was running against Humphrey and Wallace, voters could choose between two parties favoring nuclear desalination!
The Democratic party platform:
“To maintain our leadership in the application of energy, we will push forward with research and development to assure a balanced program for the supply of energy for electric power, both public and private. This effort should go hand in hand with development of « breeder » reactors and large-scale nuclear desalting plants that can provide pure water economically from the sea for domestic use and agricultural and industrial development in arid regions, and with broadened medical and biological applications of atomic energy. In addition to the physical sciences, the social sciences will be encouraged and assisted to identify and deal with the problem areas of society.
“… Lasting peace in the Middle East depends upon agreed and secured frontiers, respect for the territorial integrity of all states, the guaranteed right of innocent passage through all international waterways, a humane resettlement of the Arab refugees, and the establishment of a non-provocative military balance. To achieve these objectives, we support negotiations among the concerned parties. We strongly support efforts to achieve an agreement among states in the area and those states supplying arms to limit the flow of military equipment to the Middle East. We support efforts to raise the living standards throughout the area, including desalinization and regional irrigation projects which cut across state frontiers.” 11
The Republican Party platform:
“We support efforts to increase our total fresh water supply by further research in weather modification, and in better methods of desalination of salt and brackish waters.”
And on the Middle East, it said:
“To replace the ancient rivalries of this region with new hope and opportunity, we vigorously support a well conceived plan of regional development, including the bold nuclear desalination and irrigation proposal of former President Eisenhower.” 12(*10)
Conclusion
In one way or another, Middle East Peace, based on the sharing of water and energy obtained by the most advanced technologies (in terms of energy density), were on the agenda those days, and sometimes even conceptualized as the cornerstone of a potential new international architecture of security and mutual development ending the geopolitics of the Cold War.
Lyndon LaRouche’s proposals in 1975 and his Oasis plan currently proposed and promoted by the international Schiller Institute want to do exactly that. 13
LaRouche’s « Blue Peace » Oasis plan, to be put on the table of diplomatic negotiations as the « spine » of a durable peace agreement », includes:
- Israel’s relinquishment of exclusive control over water resources in favor of a fair resource-sharing agreement between all the countries in the region;
- The reconstruction and economic development of the Gaza Strip, including the Yasser Arafat International Airport (inaugurated in 1998 and bulldozered by Israeli in 2002), a major seaport backed up by a hinterland equipped with industrial and agricultural infrastructure.
- A floating, underwater or off-shore desalination plant will be stationed in front of Gaza.
- The construction of a fast rail network reconnecting Palestine (including Gaza) and Israel to its neighbors;
- The construction, for less than 20 billion US dollars of both the Red-Dead and the Med-Dead water conveyance system composed of tunnels, pipelines, water galeries, pumping stations, hydro-power units and nuclear powered desalination plants.
- Salted sea water, arriving at the Dead Sea, before desalination, will « fall » through a 400 meter deep shaft and generate hydro-electricity.
- Following desalination, the fresh water will go to Jordan, Palestine and Israel; the brine will refill and save the Dead Sea.
- The nuclear powered desalination plant will produce heat and electricity with « hybrid desalination » combining evaporation and Reverse Osmosis (RO) ;
- The industrial heat of the high temperature reactors (HTR) will also be tapped for industrial and agricultural purposes;
- The reservoirs of the water conveyance systems will also function as a Pumped Storage Power Plant (PSPP), essential for regulating the region’s power grids;
- Part of the seawater going through the Med-Dead Water conveyance system will be desalinated in Beersheba, the « capital of the Negev » whose population, with new fresh water supplies, can be doubled.
- New cities and « development corridors » will grow around the new water conveyance systems.
- Israel’s Dimona nuclear center and power plant (currently a military reactor and medical nuclear waste treatment center) can form the basis to create a civilian nuclear program and contribute to the construction of nuclear desalination plants. Jordan can contribute to the program with it vast reserves of thorium and uranium.
- US and Israeli plans to prepare the housing of 500,000/1 million people in the Negev exist but should be entirely reconfigured in terms of both scope and intent. They cannot be a mere extension of exclusively Jewish settlements, but should offer the opportunity to all Israeli citizens, in peaceful cooperation with the Bedouins who live there, the Palestinians and others, to roll back a common enemy: the desert.
- The policy of illegal settlements in the West Bank shall be halted. Settlers will be encouraged (through taxation, etc.) to relocate to the Negev, where they, in a shared effort with the Bedouins, Palestinians and others, can take up productive jobs and make the desert bloom (62% of Israeli territory).
PS: The Oasis Plan plan aims to bring peace to all through mutual development. It has nothing to do with Netanyahu’s Ben-Gurion canal project, a megalomaniac plan for a navigation canal connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean aimed to compete with the Suez Canal.
NOTES:
- The British Government was reported greatly concerned with the Russian arms offers; Prime Minister Eden regarded the offer to Egypt as the most “sinister” development in the East-West conflict since the Soviets took over Czechoslovakia. The British Government informed the United States in October 1955 it regarded a Russian undertaking to construct and finance the High Aswan Dam following the sale of Czech arms to Egypt would be a very serious blow to Western prestige and influence in the Middle East, providing the Russians with a means of exercising a dominating influence politically and economically in this area. ↩︎
- Myrl Kennedy Bailey, 1966 Thesis, « THE POLICIES OF- JOHN FOSTER DULLES RELATIVE TO THE SUEZ CRISIS OF 1956. »
↩︎ - Karel Vereycken, Israel-Palestine, Time to Make Water a Weapon for Peace, artkarel.com, March 2024. ↩︎
- Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1967, Book I, pages 555-558. ↩︎
- Department of State, SCI Files: Lot 69 D 217, The Department during the Administration of Lyndon B. Johnson, November 1963-January 1969, Vol. XI, Science and Technology. The proceedings of the conference were published as the “International Conference on Water for Peace,” May 23-31, 1967. ↩︎
- Letter from Harrar to Weinberg. ↩︎
- Letter from Weinberg to Bell. ↩︎
- https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull9-6/09604701121.pdf ↩︎
- https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v34/d166 ↩︎
- Airgram A-222 from London, July 18; National Archives and Records Administration, RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Files, 1967-69, E 11-3 NEAR EAST. ↩︎
- https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/1968-democratic-party-platform ↩︎
- https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/republican-party-platform-1968 ↩︎
- See note 1. ↩︎
Israel-Palestine: Time to Make Water a Weapon for Peace
« If we solve all the problems in the Middle East,
but not the problem of sharing water, our region will explode.
Peace will not be possible »
(Yitzhak Rabin, former Israeli Prime Minister, 1992).
« You only make peace with your enemies. »
(Yitzhak Rabin.)
Contents:
Introduction
1. Geography of the Middle East
2. Rainfall and Water resources
3. Hydrography of the Jordan basin
A. Source
B. Tributaries
C. Lake of Tiberias
D. Yarmouk river
4. Water sources for Israel-Palestine
A. Surface water
B. Groundwater
C. Desalination
D. Reuse of Waste water
5. Water Infrastructure Projects
A. National Water Carrier (NWC)
B. Johnston Plan
C. Ghor Canal
D. Med – Dead Sea aqueduct
E. Red Sea – Dead Sea Water Conveyance
F. Turkish projects
G. Hidden defects and non-application of the Oslo agreements
H. Ben-Gurion Canal
I. Oasis Plan
J. Alvin Weinberg, Yitzhak Rabin and Lyndon LaRouche
Introduction
This article provides readers with the keys. To understand the history of the water wars that continue to ravage the Middle East, it is essential to understand the geological, hydrographical, geographical and political issues at stake. In the second part, we examine the various options for developing water resources as part of a strategy to overcome the crisis. We will deal with the gas issue, another subject of potential conflict or cooperation, in a later article.
1. Geography
The Jordan River basin is shared by four countries: Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel, plus the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza.
Situated in the hollow of a tectonic depression on the great fault that runs from Aqaba to Turkey, the Jordan Valley is one of the lowest-lying basins in the world, flowing into the Dead Sea at an altitude of 421 meters below sea level.
See interactive topographic map.
Added to this is the fact that this is an endorheic basin, i.e. a river that flows neither into the sea nor the ocean. As in the Aral Sea basin in Central Asia, this means that any water drawn or diverted upstream reduces the level of its ultimate receptacle, the Dead Sea (see below), and can even potentially make it disappear.
While remaining a fundamental artery for the entire region, the Jordan River has a number of drawbacks: its course is not navigable, its flow remains low and its waters, which are highly saline, are polluted.
As one of the key factors in the « Water, Energy, Food nexus » – three factors whose interdependence is such that we can’t deal with one without dealing with the other two – water resource management remains a key issue, and holds a primordial place for any future shared between Israel and its Arab neighbors. To grow food, one needs water. But to desalinate sea water, Israel spends 10 % of its electricity generated by consuming gas and oil.
2. Rainfall and water resources
The Middle East forms a long, arid strip, only accidentally interrupted by areas of abundant rainfall (around 500-700 mm/year), such as the mountains of Lebanon, Palestine and Yemen.
Geographically, much of the Middle East lies south of the isohyet (imaginary line connecting points of equal rainfall) indicating 300 mm/year.
However, precipitation has only a limited effect due to its seasonality (October-February).
As a result, river flow and flooding are irregular throughout the year, as well as between years. The same applies to groundwater recharge.
On a state-by-state basis, total water resources are very unevenly distributed in the region:
—Turkey and Iraq have over 4,000 cubic meters per person per year, and Lebanon around 3000 m³/person/year, which is above the regional average (1,800 m³/person/year).
—Syria and Egypt have around 1200 m³/person/year, one third lower.
On the other hand, some countries are below the critical 500 m³/year/capita bracket:
—Israel and Jordan have 300 m³/year/capita, and the Palestinian Territories (West Bank-Gaza) less than 200 m³/year/capita. They are in what the World Health Organization (WHO) calls a situation of « water stress ».
The Middle East enjoys plenty of water on a regional scale, but has many areas in chronic shortage, on a local scale.
3. Hydrography of the Jordan basin
A. Source
360 km long, the Jordan River rises from water flowing down the slopes of Jabal el-Sheikh (Mount Hermon) in southern Lebanon on the border with Syria.
B. Tributaries
Once over the Israeli border, three tributaries join the Jordan about 6 kilometers upstream from the former Lake Hula (now reclaimed):
1. The Hasbani, with a flow of 140 million cubic meters (MCM) per year, rises in Lebanon, a country it crosses over 21 kilometers. The upper reaches of the Hasbani vary greatly with the seasons, while the lower reaches are more regular.
2. The Banias, currently under Israeli control and 30 kilometers long, has an annual flow close to that of the Hasbani (140 MCM). It rises in Syria in the Golan Heights, and flows into Israel for around 12 kilometers before emptying into the Upper Jordan.
3. The Nahr Leddan (or Dan) forms in Israel when the waters of the Golan Heights come together. Although restricted, its course remains stable and its annual flow is greater than that of the other two tributaries of the Upper Jordan, exceeding 250 MCM per year.
C. Lake Tiberias or Kinneret (aka Sea of Galilee)
The Jordan then flows through 17 km of narrow gorges to reach Lake Tiberias, where the salinity is high, especially as the freshwater streams flowing into it have been diverted. Lake Tiberias, however, receives water from the many small streams running through the Golan Heights.
D. Yarmouk River
Next, the Jordan meets the Yarmouk River (bringing in water from Syria), then meanders for 320 km (109 km as the crow flies) to reach the Dead Sea. These 320 km are occupied by a humid plain (the humid zor), with subtropical vegetation, dominated on both sides (West Bank and Jordanian) by dry, gullied terraces.
4. Water sources for Israel
The Hebrew state has four main sources of water supply:
A. Surface Water
Israel benefits first and foremost from the freshwater reserves of Lake Tiberias in Galilee, in the north of the country. Crossed by the Jordan River, this small inland sea accounts for 25% of Israel’s water needs. The annexation of the Golan Heights and the occupation of southern Lebanon have made this source of water a sanctuary.
B. Groundwater
In addition to surface water (lakes and rivers), the country can rely on its coastal aquifers, from Haifa to Ashkelon.
Located between Israel and the occupied West Bank, the main aquifer, the Yarkon-Taninim mountain aquifer, has a capacity of 350 MCM per year. In the northeast and east of the West Bank are two other aquifers with capacities of 140 and 120 MCM per year respectively.
C. Seawater desalination
Five desalination plants built along the country’s coastline — in Ashkelon (2005), Palmachin (2007), Hadera (2010), Sorek (2013) and Ashdod (2015) — currently operate and two more are under construction. Collectively, these plants are projected to account for 85-90 per cent of Israel’s annual water consumption, marking a remarkable turnaround.
The Sorek desalination plant, located about 15 km south of Tel Aviv, became operational in October 2013 with a seawater treatment capacity of 624,000m³/day, which makes it world’s biggest seawater desalination plant. The desalination facility uses seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) process providing water to Israel’s National Water Carrier system (NWC, see below). A dozen more units of this type are considered for construction.
Israel, which has been facing severe droughts since 2013, even began pumping desalinated seawater from the Mediterranean into Lake Tiberias, a unique performance worldwide. While Israel faced water scarcity two decades ago, it now exports water to its neighbors (not too much to Palestine). Israel currently supplies Jordan with 100 MCM and fulfills 20 % of Jordan’s water needs.
From 100 liters of seawater, 52 liters of drinking water and 48 liters of brine (brackish water) can be obtained. Although highly efficient and useful, desalination technology has still to be perfected, as it currently discharges brine into the sea, disrupting the marine ecosystem. To reduce this pollution and transform it into solid waste, we need to increase treatment and therefore energy consumption.
D. Wastewater
The country prides itself on reusing between 80% and 90% of its wastewater for agriculture. Treated wastewater used for irrigation is known as effluent. Israel’s effluent utilization rate is one of the highest in the world. Reclamation is carried out by 87 large wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) that supply over 660 MCM per year. This represents around 50% of total water demand for agriculture and around 25% of the country’s total water demand. Israel aims to more than double the amount of effluent produced for the agricultural sector by 2050.
5. Water infrastructure projects
For Israel, acquiring water resources in a desert region, through technology, military conquest and/or diplomacy, was from the outset an imperative to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population and, in the eyes of the rest of the world, a demonstration of its sovereign power and its superiority.
This symbolism is particularly evident in the figure of the father of the Hebrew state, David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973), whose aim was to make the Negev desert in the south of the country « blossom ».
In his book Southwards (1956), Ben Gourion described his ambition:
« It is absolutely vital for the State of Israel, both for economic and security reasons, to go south: we must direct the water and rain to there, send the young pioneers there […] as well as the bulk of our budget resources to development. »
A. National Water Carrier of Israel (NWC)
OBJECTIVE: provide fresh water for Israel’s agriculture and growing population.
From 1959 to 1964, the Israelis built the National Water Carrier of Israel (NWC), the largest water project in Israel to date.
The first ideas appeared in Theodor Herzl‘s book Altneuland (1902), in which he spoke of using the springs of the Jordan for irrigation purposes and channeling seawater to generate electricity from the Mediterranean Sea near Haifa through the Beit She’an and Jordan valleys to a canal running parallel to the Jordan and Dead Sea.
In 1919, Chaïm Waizmann, leader of the World Zionist Organization, declared: « The whole economic future of Palestine depends on its water supply ».
However, he advocated incorporating the Litani Valley (in today’s southern Lebanon) into the Palestinian state.
The NWC project was conceived as early as 1937, although detailed planning began after the recognition of Israel in 1948. In practice, the natural flow of the Jordan River is prevented by the construction of a dam, built south of Lake Tiberias. From there, water is diverted to the NWC, a 130 km-long system combining giant pipes, open channels, tunnels, reservoirs and large-scale pumping stations. The aim is to transfer water from Lake Tiberias to the densely populated center and the arid south, including the Negev desert.
When it was inaugurated in 1964, 80% of its water was allocated to agriculture and 20% to drinking water. By 1990, the NWC supplied half of Israel’s drinking water. With the addition of water from seawater desalination plants, it now supplies Tel Aviv, a city of 3.5 million inhabitants, Jerusalem (1 million inhabitants) and (outside wartime) Gaza and the occupied territories of the West Bank.
Since 1948, the area of irrigated farmland has increased from 30,000 to 186,000 hectares. Thanks to micro-irrigation (drip irrigation, including subsurface irrigation), Israeli agricultural production increased by 26% between 1999 and 2009, although the number of farmers fell from 23,500 to 17,000.
The Water War
In launching its NWC, Israel went it alone, while for the rest of the world, it was clear that diverting the waters of the Jordan River would give rise to sharp tensions with neighboring countries, particularly with Jordan and Syria, not to mention the Palestinians who have been largely excluded from the project’s economic benefits.
As early as 1953, Israel began the unilateral draining of Lake Hula (or Huleh), north of Lake Tiberias, leading to skirmishes with Syria.
In 1959, Israel kickstarted the NWC. The project was initially interrupted by a halt in American funding, as the Americans did not want to see violence escalate in the context of the Cold War.
It should be noted that, following the Suez crisis of 1956, the Soviet Union established itself in Syria as the protecting power of Arab countries against the « Israeli threat ». As part of the deployment of its naval presence in the Mediterranean, it obtained facilities for its fleet at Latakia in Syria.
However, Israel managed to quietly resume and continue the work on the NWC. Filling the system by pumping of Lake Tiberias began in June 1964 in utmost secrecy. When the Arab countries learned of this, their anger was great. In November 1964, the Syrian army fired on Israeli patrols around the NWC pumping station, provoking Israeli counter-attacks. In January 1965, the NWC was the target of the first attack by the Fatah (organization fighting for the liberation of Palestine) led by Yasser Arafat.
The Arab states finally recognized that they would never be able to stop the project through direct military action.
They therefore adopted a plan, the Headwater Diversion Plan immediately implemented in 1965, to divert water upstream from the tributaries of the Jordan River into the Yarmouk River (in Syria). The project was technically complicated and costly, but if successful would have diverted 35% of the water Israel intended to withdraw from the upper Jordan…
Israel declared that it considered this deviation of the water as an infringement of its sovereign rights. Relations degenerated completely and border clashes followed, with Syrian forces firing on Israeli army farmers and patrols. In July 1966, the Israeli air force bombed a concentration of earth-moving equipment and shot down a Syrian MiG-21. The Arab states abandoned their counter plan, but the conflict continued along the Israel-Syria border, including an Israeli air attack on Syrian territory in April 1967.
For many analysts, this was a prelude to the Six-Day War in 1967, when Israel occupied the Golan Heights to protect its water supply. The Six-Day War profoundly altered the geopolitical situation in the basin, with Israel now occupying not only the Gaza Strip and Sinai, but also the West Bank and the Golan Heights.
As French researcher Hervé Amiot explains:
« Israel went from being a downstream country to an upstream one, enabling it to gain control of vast resources. Israel now controlled 20% of the northern bank of the Yarmouk and occupied the Golan Heights, controlling all the small rivers flowing into Lake Tiberias. What’s more, total occupation of the West Bank gives them control over the important water tables ».
In fact, as early as 1955, between a quarter and a third of the water came from the groundwater in the south-western part of the West Bank. Today, the West Bank aquifers supply Israel with 475 million m³ of water, i.e. 25-30% of the country’s water consumption (and 50% of its drinking water).
Two months after the seizure of the occupied territories, Israel issued “Military Decree 92”, transferring authority over all water resources in the occupied territories to the Israeli army and conferring « absolute power to control all water-related matters to the Water Resources Officer, appointed by the Israeli courts ». This decree revoked all drilling licenses issued by the Jordanian government and designated the Jordan region a military zone, thus depriving Palestinians of all access to water while granting Israel total control over water resources, including those used to support its settlement projects.
Today, returning the Golan to Syria and recognizing the sovereignty of the Palestinian Authority over the West Bank seems impossible for Israel, given the Hebrew state’s increasing dependence on the water resources of these occupied territories. The exploitation of these resources will therefore continue, despite Article 55 of the Regulations of the IVth Hague Convention, which stipulates that an occupying power does not become the owner of water resources and cannot exploit them for the needs of its civilians…
B. Johnston Plan
OBJECTIVE: In the context of the Cold War, counter Nasser’s growing influence in the region. Offer regional stability by building dams and canals allowing a just sharing of water resources and providing water and energy for both Israel and Arab states welcoming « unfortunate » Palestinian refugees.
One might think that the United States tried very early on to prevent the situation from degenerating in such a predictable way. They tried to take into account Israel’s legitimate interest in securing access to water, the absolute key to its survival and development, while at the same time offering neighboring countries (Jordan, Syria and Lebanon) sufficient resources to accommodate the millions of Palestinians exiled from their homes following the Nakba.
Faced with the risk of conflict, as early as 1953 – years before Israel launched its NWC plan – the American government proposed its mediation to resolve disputes over the Jordan basin. The result was the « Jordan Valley Unified Water Plan » (known as the « Johnston Plan »), named after Eric Allen Johnston, president of the United States Chamber of Commerce and US President Dwight Eisenhower‘s water envoy.
More concretely, “The Unified Development of the Water Resources of the Jordan Valley Region,” was prepared at the request of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees under the direction of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
On Oct. 13, 1953, Eisenhower’s Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, in a top secret letter instructed Johnston what his mission was all about and on Oct. 16, in a public statement Eisenhower explained:
« One of the major causes of disquiet in the Near East is the fact that some hundreds of thousands of Arab refugees are living without adequate means of support in the Arab states. The material wants of these people have been cared for through the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) … It has been evident from the start, however, that every effort must be made by the countries concerned, with the help of the international community, to find a means of giving these unfortunate people an opportunity to regain personal self-sufficiency.
« One of the major purposes of Mr. Johnston’s mission will be to undertake discussions with certain of the Arab states and Israel, looking to the mutual development of the water resources of the Jordan River Valley on a regional basis for the benefit of all the people of the area. …
« Such a regional approach holds a promise of extensive economic improvement in the countries concerned through the development of much needed irrigation and hydroelectric power and through the creation of an economic base on the land for a substantial proportion of the Arab refugees. It is my conviction that acceptance of a comprehensive plan for the development of the Jordan Valley would contribute greatly to stability in the Near East and to general economic progress of the region.«
This plan established the transboundary nature of the Jordan basin and proposed an equitable sharing of the resource, giving 52% of the water to Jordan, 31% to Israel, 10% to Syria and 3% to Lebanon.
The plan, just as the Tennessee Valley Authority during FDR’s New Deal, was essentially based on building dams for irrigation and hydropower. The water was there and correctly managed, sufficient for the needs of the population at that time. Its main features were:
- a dam on the Hasbani River to provide power and irrigate the Galilee area;
- dams on the Dan and Banias Rivers to irrigate Galilee;
- drainage of the Huleh swamps;
- a dam at Maqarin on the Yarmouk River for water storage (capacity of 175 million m³) and power generation;
- a small dam at Addassiyah on the Yarmouk to divert its water toward both the Lake Tiberias and south along the eastern Ghor;
- a small dam at the outlet of Lake Tiberias to increase its storage capacity;
- gravity-flow canals along the east and west sides of the Jordan valley to irrigate the area between the Yarmouk’s confluence with the Jordan and the Dead Sea;
- control works and canals to utilize perennial flows from the wadis that the canals cross.
See details of the Johnston plan in this comprehensive article.
The project was validated by the technical committees of Israel and the Arab League, and did not require Israel to abandon its ambition to green the Negev desert. Unfortunately, however, the presentation of the plan to the Knesset in July 1955 did not result in a vote.
The Arab Committee approved the plan in September 1955 and forwarded it to the Council of the Arab League for final approval. Tragically, this institution also chose not to ratify it on October 11, because of its opposition to an act implying an implicit act of recognition of Israel that would prevent the return of the Palestinian refugees to their home… The mistake here was to isolate the water issue from a broader agreement on peace and justice as the foundation of mutual development.
Then, after the Suez Canal crisis in 1956, the Arab countries, with the exception of Jordan, hardened their stance towards Israel considerably, and henceforth opposed the Johnston plan head-on, arguing that it would amplify the threat posed by that country by enabling it to strengthen its economy. They also claim that increasing Israel’s water resources could only increase Jewish migration to the Hebrew state, thereby reducing the possibility of the return of Palestinian refugees from the 1948 war…
History cannot be rewritten, but the adoption of the Johnston Plan could well have prevented conflicts, such as that of 1967, which cost the lives of 15,000 Egyptians, 6,000 Jordanians, 2,500 Syrians and at least 1,000 Israelis.
C. Jordan’s response: the Ghor irrigation Canal
OBJECTIVE: construct the Jordanian section of the Johnston Plan to have water for irrigation and the capital of Jordan.
At almost the same time as Israel was completing its NWC, Jordan was digging the East Ghor irrigation canal between 1955 and 1964, starting at the confluence of the Yarmouk and Jordan rivers and running parallel to the latter all the way to the Dead Sea on Jordanian territory.
Originally, this was part of a larger project – the « Greater Yarmouk » project – which included two storage dams on the Yarmouk and a future “Western Ghor Canal” on the west bank of the Jordan. The latter was never built, as Israel took the West Bank from Jordan in the 1967 Six-Day War.
In effect, by diverting the waters of the Yarmouk to fill up its own canal, Jordan secured water for its capital Amman and its agriculture, but of course, contributed reducing the waters of the Jordan River.
In Jordan, the Jordan’s river watershed is a region of vital importance to the country. It is home to 83% of the population, the main industries and 80% of irrigated agriculture. It is also home to 80% of the country’s total water resources.
Overall, the Hashemite kingdom is one of the world’s most water-poor countries, with 92% of its territory desert. While Israel has 276 m³ of natural freshwater available per capita per year, Jordan has just 179 m³, more than half of which comes from groundwater.
The UN considers that a country with less than 500 m³ of freshwater per capita per year suffers from « absolute water stress ». Added to this is the fact that since the start of the Syrian civil war, Jordan has welcomed nearly 1.4 million refugees onto its soil, in addition to its 10 million inhabitants.
The East Ghor Canal was designed in 1957 and built between 1959 and 1961 competing with Israel’s NWC. In 1966, the upstream section as far as Wadi Zarqa was completed. The canal was then 70 km long and was extended three times between 1969 and 1987.
The United States, through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), financed the initial phase of the project, after obtaining explicit assurances from the Jordanian government that Jordan would not withdraw more water from the Yarmouk than had been allocated to it under the Johnston Plan. They were also involved in the subsequent phases.
Waterworks in the region are often named after great political figures. The East Ghor Canal was named « King Abdallah Canal (KAC) » by Abdalla II after his great-grandfather, the founder of Jordan. At the time of the peace treaty with Israel in 1994, the two countries shared the flow of the Jordan, and Jordan agreed to sell its water from Lake Tiberias.
D. Mediterranean – Dead Sea Aqueduct
OBJECTIVE: generate hydro-electricity and make Israel independant from Arab oil and gas supplies.
The idea of a Dead Sea-Mediterranean Canal was first proposed by William Allen in 1855 in a book entitled The Dead Sea – A new route to India. At the time, it was not known that the level of the Dead Sea was far below that of the Mediterranean, and Allen proposed the canal as an alternative to the Suez navigation Canal.
Later, several engineers and politicians took up the idea, including Theodor Herzl in his 1902 short story Altneuland. Most early projects were based on the left bank of the Jordan, but a modified form, using the right bank (West bank), was proposed after 1967.
After extensive research, German engineers Herbert Wendt and Wieland Kelm proposed not a navigable canal, but an aqueduct consisting essentially of an overhead gallery running West-East, linking the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea.
Their 1975 detailed project study Depressionskraftwerk am Toten Meer – Eine Projektstudie, on how to use the difference of water levels between the Mediterranean sea (level 0) and the Dead Sea (- 400 m) for power generation was the subject of a first publication in the German journal Wasserwirtschaft (1975,3).
The diagram indicates the system operates as follows:
- The seawater intake is at Ashdod.
- An open channel allows the water to flow by gravity for 7 km.
- From there, the pressurized water travels through a 65 km-long hydraulic gallery;
- The water arrives in a 3km-long reservoir created by a dam on the edge of the steep descent to the Dead Sea. At that point, the water can be used to cool a thermal or nuclear power plant, the heat from which can be used for industrial or agricultural purposes.
- Through a shaft running from the bottom of the reservoir, the water descends a steep 400 metres.
- There, it powers three turbines, each producing 100 MWe.
- Finally, via an evacuation gallery, the seawater reaches the Dead Sea.
However, since the project was elaborated exclusively by Israel and without any consultation with its Jordanian, Egyptian and Palestinian neighbors, the project ran against a wall of political opposition.
Of course, as with any large scale infrastructure projects, many things needed to be adapted, including tourist equipment, roads, hotels, Jordanian potash exploitation, Palestinian farmland, etc.
Questions were also raised about (very infrequent) potential earthquakes and the difference of salinity of water from the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea.
On Dec. 16, 1981, the UN General Assembly, arguing the canal project « will violate the principle of international law » adopted Resolution 36-150.
That resolution requested the UN Security Council « to consider initiating measures to halt the execution of this project » and calling « upon all States not to assist, either directly or indirectly, in the preparation for and the execution of this project. »
The request, in article 3, to submit a study was fulfilled. The report, not really convincing, details various objections but doesn’t call into question the technical feasability of the project.
E. Red Sea – Dead Sea Water Conveyance
OBJECTIVES: Build a desalination plant close to the Dead Sea to provide fresh water to Jordan, Israel and Palestine by desalinating seawater arriving via a pipeline from the Red Sea. Use the brine to refill the Dead Sea. Use the watersharing as a model for peaceful mutual beneficial cooperation. Make the project the heart of a development corridor.
In the framework of the peace treaty between Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan the integrated development Master Plan for the Jordan Rift Valley (JRV) was studied in the mid 1990’s.
The Red Sea – Dead Sea Canal (RSDSC) was considered to be one of the most important potential elements for implementing this Master Plan. The principal development objective of the RSDSC was to provide desalinated drinking water for the people of the area.
On October 17, 1994, then Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and King Hussein of Jordan validated the draft peace treaty between their two countries in Amman, after reaching agreement on the last two points in dispute – the water issue and border demarcation.
On November 26, the Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty was signed with great fanfare in the Arava Valley, between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea, by the prime ministers of the two countries, in the presence of US President Bill Clinton, whose country had helped bring the negotiations between Jerusalem and Amman to a successful conclusion.
This created the condition where the old idea of linking the Red Sea with the Dead Sea, a project renamed and supported by Shimon Peres as the « Peace Canal », could come back on the table.
Former Israeli water commissioner Professor Dan Zaslavsky, who opposed the project on cost grounds, wrote in the Jerusalem Post in 2006 about Peres’ obstinacy. To listen to the scientists, Peres summoned five of them. Each had to present his objections in a few minutes.
« At one point, Peres got up and said, ‘Excuse me. Don’t you remember that I built the nuclear reactor in Dimona? Do you remember that everyone was against it? Well I was right in the end. And this will prove to be the same thing! » And with that, Zaslavsky said with a flourish, « he left! »
The Dead Sea
For millennia, the Dead Sea was filled with fresh water from the Jordan River, via Lake Tiberias. Over the last fifty years, however, it has lost 28% of its depth and a third of its surface area. Its water level is falling inexorably, at an average rate of 1.45 meters per year. Its high salinity – over 27%, compared with the average for oceans and seas of 2-4% – and a level 430 meters below sea level, has always fascinated visitors and provided therapeutic benefits. Stretching 51 kilometers long and 18 kilometers wide, it is shared by Israel, Jordan and the West Bank.
The over-exploitation of upstream water resources (the National Aqueduct in Israel, the Ghor Canal in Jordan), together with potassium mining, is the cause of the sand desert which, if nothing is done, will continue to replace the Dead Sea.
If the Dead Sea needs the Jordan River, the Jordan River needs Lake Tiberias, from which it takes its source. However, the lake too has been affected by drastic drops in its water level in recent years, triggering a vicious circle between the three systems (Lake Tiberias, Jordan River and Dead Sea).
Aqueduct
In response, at the end of 2006, the World Bank and Agence Française de Développement (AFD) assisted Israel and Jordan in the design of a colossal project to link the Dead Sea to the Red Sea via a 180-kilometer mainly underground pipeline.
In the end, the project for an aqueduct starting from the Red Sea and built entirely on Jordanian territory was chosen, with the signing of a tripartite agreement between Israelis, Jordanians and Palestinians in December 2013.
- Sea intake and pumping station
The seawater is pumped to +125 m above sea level at the Red Sea. - Pressure pipeline
The first part of the conveyance system transmits the seawater to the planned elevation. The length is 5 km from Aqaba (3% of the whole alignment). - A tunnel and canal conveyance system
Seawater is transmitted to the regulating and pretreatment reservoirs with a design flow of 60 m3 /s. A 121 km tunnel with 7 m diameter and 39 km canal were designed. - Regulating and pre-treatment reservoirs
Several reservoirs were designed at +107 m at Wadi G’mal at the southeastern margin of the Dead Sea. - Desalination plants
The 2 desalination plants are designed to operate by using the process of hydrostatically supported reverse osmosis to provide desalinated seawater. The main plant will be located at Safi at 365 m below the sea level with a water column of 475 m. - Fresh water
The project will produce around 850 MMC of fresh water per year, to be shared between Jordan, Israel and Palestine, the three countries that manage the Dead Sea. For the transmission of the water to Amman a double pipeline of 200 km with 2.75 m diameter was designed with nine pumping stations for the uplift of 1,500 m. For the transmission to Hebron a double pipeline of 125 km with an elevation difference of 1,415 m was designed. - The brine
The brine reject water will be conveyed from the desalination plant via a 7 km canal to the Dead Sea. 1,100 MMC per year of brine reject water will enter the Dead Sea. - Electricity generation
As the brine runs through the tunnel and canal, the turbines of one or more hydroelectric power plants will generate around 800 megawatts of electricity to partially offset the electricity consumed by pumping; - Three new cities will be built: North Aqaba city in northern Aqaba, South Dead Sea City, close to the desalination plant south of the Dead Sea, and South Amman City (see map at the beginning of this section).
In terms of environmental impact, scientists have expressed concern that mixing the brine (rich in sulfate) from the desalination plants with the Dead Sea water (rich in calcium) could cause the latter to turn white. It would therefore be necessary to proceed with a gradual water transfer to observe the effects of water transfer in this particular ecosystem.
Not enough to stabilize the level of the Dead Sea, but a first step to start slowing down its drying up, emphasized Frédéric Maurel, in charge of this project for AFD, in 2018. « We also need to use water more sparingly, both in agriculture and in the potash industry, » he stressed.
Political will?
In 2015, as a supplement to the program, agreements had been reached on reciprocal water sales: Jordan would supply drinking water to Israel in the south, which in return would increase its sales of water from Lake Tiberias to supply northern Jordan. And the Palestinians would also receive additional water supplies from Israel. By the end of 2016, five consortia of companies had been shortlisted.
In 2017, the European Investment Bank produced a 264 page detailed study to support the plan.
On the Israeli side, saving the Dead Sea is a necessity to maintain seaside tourism and thermalism. It is also a lever to guarantee its hydraulic control over the West Bank, as Israel does not trust the Palestinian Authority to manage water. Honest elements of the Hebrew state are aware of the peacemaking potential of this project, and need a stable partner in the region. Jordan, for its part, was by far the most interested in this project, given its critical situation.
In 2021, Jordan decided to put an end to the joint water pipeline project, believing that there was « no real desire on the part of the Israelis » for the plan, which had stagnated for several years, to go ahead.
To face its growing needs, Jordan has decided to build its own desalination plant directly on the Red Sea. The Aqaba-Amman Water Desalination and Conveyance Project will take water from the Red Sea at the Gulf of Aqaba in the south, desalinate it, and channel it 450 kilometres north to the capital Amman and its surrounding area, supplying a desperately needed 300 million cubic metres of water a year. Studies are complete and construction will start on July 2024. The plant will be powered with solar energy.
In 2022, Jordan, the UAE and Israel signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to continue feasibility studies for two interconnected projects: establishing the water desalination station at the Red Sea (Prosperity Blue) and establishing a solar power plant in Jordan (Prosperity Green). However, due to the ongoing war against Gaza and the rejection of the Jordanian public regarding the agreement’s signing, the Jordan government announced the suspension of the agreement.
The Dead Sea might slowly reappear
With huge desalinization capacities in hand, Israel adopted in 2023 the National Carrier Flow Reversal Project to return water to its natural resources, in particular to Lake Tiberias, the very source of freshwater for its entire national water system.
Lake Tiberias, as we have seen, is therefore a national treasure, a centerpiece of tourism, agriculture and, as we have seen, geopolitics.
According to Dodi Belser, Director of Innovation at water state giant Mekorot, if Israel wants to increase the water it sends to its Jordanian neighbors and to protect its reservoir, it’s vital to retain the lake’s water level. Currently Israel taps 100 million cubic meters of water from Lake Tiberias to send to Jordan, and did so even during the drought years of 2013 to 2018.
Increase resilience to climate chaos and preparing eventual futur water sharing, gave birth to the idea to pump desalinated water into the Lake Tiberias, up to 120 million cubic meters a year until 2026. That is happening right now.
It can partly increase the level of the Jordan river and therefore the water arriving into the Dead Sea. But the salt in the Dead Sea comes from the waters of the Jordan River. Every year, the famous river brings it some 850,000 tonnes of salt.
F. Turkish water sales
Turkye, a veritable « water tower » in the region, has long dreamed of exporting its water to Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other Middle Eastern countries at a premium.
The most ambitious of these projects was President Turgut Ozal‘s « Peace Water Pipeline » in 1986, a $21 billion project to pipe water from the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers to cities in Syria, Jordan and the Arab states of the Gulf.
In 2000, Israel was strongly considering purchasing 50 million m3 per year for 20 years from the Manavgat river near Antalya, but since November 2006, the deal has been put on hold.
The Manavgat project, technically completed in mid-March 2000, was a pilot project.
The complex on the Manavgat river – which rises in the Taurus mountains and flows into the Mediterranean between Antalya and Alanya – includes a pumping station, a refining center and a ten-kilometer-long canal. The aim was then to transport this fresh water by 250,000-ton tankers to the Israeli port of Ashkelon for injection into the Israeli NWC.
Eventually, Jordan was also interested in Turkey’s aquatic manna. A second customer downstream of its network would enable Israel to share costs. Another possibility would be to transport the water via a water pipeline linking Turkey to Syria and Jordan, and ultimately to Israel and Palestine if the latter could reach an agreement with its partners. The Palestinians, for their part, have been looking for a donor country to subsidize freshwater imports by tanker to Gaza.
The Manavgat project is not the only one through which Ankara hopes to sell its water. In 1992, Suleyman Demirel, then Prime Minister, expressed a credo that went viral: « Turkey can use the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers as it sees fit: Turkey’s water resources belong to Turkey, just as oil belongs to Arab countries.”
The countries downstream of the two rivers – Iraq and above all Syria – immediately protested. For them, the multiple dams that Ankara plans to build on the region’s main freshwater sources for irrigation or power generation are simply a way for the heir to the Ottoman Empire to assert its authority over the region.
Whatever Ankara’s real ambitions, the country has a real treasure trove at its disposal, especially given the dwindling resources of neighboring countries.
In the end, since November 2006, Israeli supporters of desalination have objected to the price of Turkish water and questioned the wisdom of relying on Ankara, whose government is critical of Israeli policies. Desalination or importation? The choice is a Cornelian one for Israel. And an eminently political one, since it comes down to knowing whether to stick to positions based on self-sufficiency or whether to play the regional cooperation card, which amounts to betting on trust…
G. Hidden defects and non-implementation of Oslo
The recognition of Israel by Yasser Arafat – leader of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation –, and the election of Yitzhak Rabin as Israel’s Prime minister in 1992 opened new opportunities for peace and cooperation. The Oslo accords they signed established the Palestinian Authority and determined temporary groundwater allocations from the West Bank to Israel and Palestine. In the declaration, both parties agreed on the principle of “equitable utilisation” between Palestinians and Israelis.
The collapse of mutual trust following the assassination of Rabin in November 1995 and the subsequent election of Benjamin Netanyahu, who had been highly critical of Oslo, negatively affected cooperation on water.
In 2000, during the first six months of the second Intifada, there was hardly any contact between both sides regarding water issues. But with reason coming back, despite the conflict, Israeli and Palestinian leaders committed themselves to separating the water issue from violence and reactivated cooperation over water.
In 2004, Israel reportedly proposed a plan to build a desalination plant in order to increase the quantity of freshwater available and to channel desalinated water to the West Bank. Fearing that this might in effect imply a renunciation to Palestinian water claims on the Mountain aquifer (75% of which is allocated to Israel even though the Aquifer is on Palestinian land), the Palestinians rejected this solution.
The Oslo Accords, signed by Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1993, although stipulating that « Israel recognizes the water rights of Palestine », in reality allowed Israel to continue controlling the region’s water sources… while awaiting a resolution to the conflict. Oslo II provided for the postponement of negotiations on water rights until those on permanent status, as well as on the status of Jerusalem, refugees’ right of return, illegal settlements, security arrangements and other issues.
But final status talks, scheduled to take place five years after the implementation of the Oslo Accords (in 1999, as planned), have not yet taken place.
The Oslo Accords also provided for the creation of a water management authority, and their « Declaration of Principles » stressed the need to ensure « the equitable use of common water resources, for application during the interim period [of the Oslo Accords] and thereafter ».
Hence, for decades, Israel has perpetuated a principle of water distribution that existed before the Oslo Accords were signed, allowing Israelis to consume water at will while limiting Palestinians to a predetermined 15% share.
The Oslo agreements did not take into account the division of the West Bank into zones A, B and C when it came to organizing water distribution between Israel and the Palestinians.
Israel was finally granted the right to control water sources, even in PA-controlled areas A and B.
Most water sources were already located in Area C, which is entirely controlled by Israel and comprises almost 61% of the West Bank.
On the ground, Israel has connected all the settlements built in the West Bank, with the exception of the Jordan Valley, to the Israeli water network. The water supply to Israeli communities on both sides of the Green Line is managed as a single system, under the responsibility of Israel’s national water company, Mekorot.
While the Oslo Accords allowed Israel to pump water from areas under its control to supply settlements in the occupied West Bank, they also prevent the PA from transferring water from one area to another in those it administers in the West Bank. Israel has disavowed most of the provisions of the Oslo Accords, but remains committed to those relating to water.
A member of the Palestinian delegation that signed the Oslo Accords, wishing to remain anonymous, tells Middle East Eye magazine that the delegation’s lack of expertise at the time resulted in the signing of an agreement that
« placed the fate of Palestinian access to water in Israel’s hands (…) Most Palestinian water experts withdrew from the negotiations at the outset of the Oslo process, as they were not satisfied with the way the negotiations were being conducted », he stressed. « As for the political leaders, their main objective was to reach an agreement. »
In practice, this means that Palestinians in the occupied West Bank are at the mercy of the Israeli occupation when it comes to their water supply.
Inequalities in terms of access to water in the West Bank are glaring, as shown by the Israeli NGO B’Tselem in a report entitled Parched, published in May 2023.
In 2020, each Palestinian in the West Bank consumed an average of 82.4 liters of water per day, compared with 247 liters per person in Israel and the settlements.
This figure drops to 26 liters per day for Palestinian communities in the West Bank that are not connected to the water distribution network. 36% of West Bank Palestinians have year-round access to running water, compared with 100% of Israelis, including settlers.
The Palestinian Authority, which claims more water, points out that Palestinian agriculture plays a major role in the economy of the Occupied Territories (15% of GDP, 14% of the working population in 2000). In comparison, Israeli agriculture, while far more productive, employs 2.5% of the working population and produces 3% of GDP.
Added to this the fact that the arable land recognized by Israel under the Oslo Accords as totally or partially autonomous to the Palestinians is located in the limestone uplands, where access to water is difficult, since it is necessary to dig deep to reach the water table.
What’s more, in Israel and the settlements, 47% of land is irrigated, compared with only 6% of Palestinian land. The Palestinian Authority is currently demanding rights to 80% of the mountain aquifer, which Israel cannot conceive of.
Myth of Thirsty Palestinian
Israeli spokespeople, such as Akiva Bigman in his article titled « The Myth of the Thirsty Palestinian » have three answers ready to pull out when they are confronted with the water shortages in West Bank Palestinian towns:
1) “Because the PA does not properly maintain its water system, it suffers from a 33 percent rate of water loss, mostly due to leakage; in contrast to an 11 percent loss from the Israeli system.”
Answer: leakage varies from 20 to 50% in the USA, far above the rate of poor Palestine.
2) “40 potential drilling sites in the Hebron area were identified and approved by the Israeli-Palestinian Joint Water Committee; but in the two decades since then, drilling has taken place in only three places, and this is in spite of substantial funding provided to the PA by donor nations.”
One can ask where the money went. And yes, in reality, at the end of the day, for various technical reasons and unexpected drilling failures in the eastern basin of the aquifer (the only place the agreement allows the Palestinians to drill), the Palestinians ended up producing less water than the agreements set.
3) Israel has in its great generosity “doubled the amount of water it supplies to the Palestinians, compared to what was called for in the Oslo Accords.”
True. However, Oslo didn’t set a limit to the amount of water Israel can take, but limited the Palestinians to 118 MCM from the wells that existed prior to the accords, and another 70-80 MCM from new drilling. According to the Israeli NGO B’Tselem, as of 2014 the Palestinians are only getting 14 percent of the aquifer’s water. That is why the Israeli state company Mekorot (obeying to government directives) is selling the Palestinians the double of water stipulated in the Oslo Agreement – 64 MCM, as opposed to 31 MCM. 64 + 31 = 95 MCM in total, to be compated with current consumption by Palestinians in the West Bank: 239 MCM of water in 2020 of which 77.1 of them purchased from Israel.
A final detail that speaks volumes: Palestinians are charged the price of drinking water for their agricultural water while Jewish settlers benefit from agricultural tariffs and subsidies. The justification being that the Jewish settlers have invested in expensive irrigation techniques such as desalination
H. Ben Gurion Navigation Canal
At the end of 2023, the idea of the Ben-Gurion navigation Canal project was revived in the media. The canal would link the Gulf of Aqaba (Eilat) in the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, passing through Israel to terminate in or near the Gaza Strip (Ashkelon). This is an Israeli alternative to the Suez Canal, which became topical in the 1960s following Nasser’s nationalization of Suez.
The first ideas for a connection between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean appeared in the mid-19th century, on the initiative of the British, who wanted to link the three seas: the Red, the Dead and the Mediterranean. As the Dead Sea lies 430.5 meters below sea level, such an idea was not feasible, but it could be realized in another direction. Frightened by Nasser’s nationalization of Suez, the Americans considered the option of the Israeli canal, their loyal ally in the Middle East.
In July 1963, H. D. Maccabee of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, under contract to the U.S. Department of Energy, wrote a memorandum exploring the possibility of using 520 underground nuclear explosions to help dig some 250 kilometers of canals across the Negev desert. The document was classified until 1993. « Such a canal would constitute a strategically valuable alternative to the present Suez Canal and would probably contribute greatly to the economic development of the surrounding region, » says the declassified document.
The idea of the Ben Gurion Canal resurfaced at the same time as the signing of the so-called « Abraham Agreements » between Israel and the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco and Sudan.
On October 20, 2020, the unthinkable happened: Israel’s state-owned Europe Asia Pipeline Company (EAPC) and the UAE’s MED-RED Land Bridge signed an agreement to use the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline to transport oil from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, avoiding de facto the Suez Canal.
On April 2, 2021, Israel announced that work on the Ben Gurion Canal was due to start in June of the same year. But this has not been the case. Some analysts interpret the current Israeli reoccupation of the Gaza Strip as an event that many Israeli politicians were waiting for to revive an old project.
A closer look at the planned route shows that the canal starts at the southern edge of the Gulf of Aqaba, from the port city of Eilat, close to the Israeli-Palestinian border, and continues through the Arabah valley for around 100 km, between the Negev mountains and the Jordanian highlands. It then turns west before the Dead Sea, continues through a valley in the Negev mountain range, then turns north again to bypass the Gaza Strip and reach the Mediterranean Sea in the Ashkelon region.
The project’s promoters argue that their canal would be more efficient than the Suez Canal because, in addition to being able to accommodate a greater number of ships, it would allow the simultaneous two-way navigation of large vessels thanks to the design of two canal arms.
Unlike the Suez Canal, which runs along sandy banks, the Israeli canal would have hard walls that require almost no maintenance. Israel plans to build small towns, hotels, restaurants and cafés along the canal.
Each proposed branch of the canal would be 50 meters deep and around 200 meters wide. It would be 10 meters deeper than the Suez Canal. Ships 300 meters long and 110 meters wide could pass through the canal, corresponding to the size of the world’s largest ships.
If completed, the Ben-Gurion Canal would be almost a third longer than the Suez Canal, which measures 193.3 km, or 292.9 km. Construction of the canal would take 5 years and involve 300,000 engineers and technicians from all over the world. Construction costs are estimated at between $16 and $55 billion. Israel stands to gain $6 billion a year.
Whoever controls the canal, and apparently it can only be Israel and its allies (mainly the USA and Great Britain), will have enormous influence over international supply chains for oil, gas and grain, as well as world trade in general.
Israel argues that such a project would undermine the power of Egypt, a country strongly allied with Russia, China and the BRICS and therefore « a threat » to the West! With the depopulation of Gaza and the prospect of total Israeli control over this tiny territory, some Israeli politicians, including Netanyahu, are once again salivating over the prospect of such a project.
As Croatian analyst Matia Seric pointed out in Asia Review in November 2023:
« If realized, the Ben Gurion Canal would bring about a tectonic change as it would overshadow the Suez Canal. The project would launch Israel into the center of world shipping and world trade. Egypt would lose its monopoly on the shortest route between Africa, Asia and Europe. The emergence of an alternative Israeli channel would have a devastating impact on the Egyptian economy. President el-Sisi may regret putting his trust in Israel and Western governments above the well-being of the two million Palestinians in Gaza. Egypt, apart from formally condemning the mass crimes committed by Israeli forces against the civilian Palestinian population, has done little to prevent Israeli wrongdoing, which some call genocide. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has repeatedly expressed support for the idea of the canal along with the idea of building a high-speed railway from Eilat to Beersheba. Realizing, or at least starting, this project could redeem Netanyahu from his many mistakes during his long reign, including the intelligence and military failures that facilitated the October 7 attack by Hamas. »
I. Oasis Plan
It is in the light of all these failures that the fundamental contribution of the « Oasis Plan » proposed by the American economist Lyndon LaRouche (1922-2019) becomes apparent.
In 1975, following talks with the leaders of the Iraqi Baath Party and sane elements of the Israeli Labor Party, the American economist LaRouche saw his Oasis Plan as the basis for mutual development to the benefit of the entire region.
Instead of waiting for « stability » and « lasting peace » to arrive magically, LaRouche proposed and even launched projects in the interests of all, and « recruited » all partners to participate fully, first and foremost in their own interests, but in reality in the interests of all.
LaRouche’s « Blue Peace » Oasis plan, to be put on the table of diplomatic negotiations as the « spine » of a durable peace agreement », includes:
- Israel’s relinquishment of exclusive control over water resources in favor of a fair resource-sharing agreement between all the countries in the region;
- The reconstruction and economic development of the Gaza Strip, including the Yasser Arafat International Airport (inaugurated in 1998 and bulldozered by Israeli in 2002), a major seaport backed up by a hinterland equipped with industrial and agricultural infrastructure.
- A floating, underwater or off-shore desalination plant will be stationed in front of Gaza.
- The construction of a fast rail network reconnecting Palestine (including Gaza) and Israel to its neighbors;
- The construction, for less than 20 billion US dollars of both the Red-Dead and the Med-Dead water conveyance system composed of tunnels, pipelines, water galeries, pumping stations, hydro-power units and nuclear powered desalination plants.
- Salted sea water, arriving at the Dead Sea, before desalination, will « fall » through a 400 meter deep shaft and generate hydro-electricity.
- Following desalination, the fresh water will go to Jordan, Palestine and Israel; the brine will refill and save the Dead Sea.
- The nuclear powered desalination plant will produce heat and electricity with « hybrid desalination » combining evaporation and Reverse Osmosis (RO) ;
- The industrial heat of the Molten Salt (MSR) high temperature reactors (HTR), will also be tapped for industrial and agricultural purposes;
- The reservoirs of the water conveyance systems will also function as a Pumped Storage Power Plant (PSPP), essential for regulating the region’s power grids;
- Part of the seawater going through the Med-Dead Water conveyance system will be desalinated in Beersheba, the « capital of the Negev » whose population, with new fresh water supplies, can be doubled.
- New cities and « development corridors » will grow around the new water conveyance systems.
- Israel’s Dimona nuclear center and power plant (currently a military reactor and medical nuclear waste treatment center) can form the basis to create a civilian nuclear program and contribute to the construction of nuclear desalination plants. Jordan can supply the uranium.
- US and Israeli plans to prepare the housing of 500,000/1 million people in the Negev exist but should be entirely reconfigured in terms of both scope and intent. They cannot be a mere extension of exclusively Jewish settlements, but should offer the opportunity to all Israeli citizens, in peaceful cooperation with the Bedouins who live there, the Palestinians and others, to roll back a common enemy: the desert.
- The policy of illegal settlements in the West Bank shall be halted. Settlers will be encouraged (through taxation, etc.) to relocate to the Negev, where they, in a shared effort with the Bedouins, Palestinians and others, can take up productive jobs and make the desert bloom (62% of Israeli territory).
PS: The Oasis Plan plan aims to bring peace to all through mutual development. It has nothing to do with Netanyahu’s Ben-Gurion canal project, a megalomaniac plan for a navigation canal connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean aimed to compete with the Suez Canal.
Alvin Weinberg, Yitzhak Rabin and Lyndon LaRouche
LaRouche proposed coupling hydrological, energy, agricultural and industrial infrastructures. These agro-industrial complexes, built around small high-temperature nuclear reactors, were called « nuplexes », a concept put forward in the post-war period by the American scientist Alvin Weinberg, head of the Oak Ridge Laboratories in Tennessee (ORNL) and co-inventor of several types of nuclear reactor, notably the molten-salt line using thorium as fuel (and therefore without the production of weapons-grade plutonium).
In chapter 8 of his autobiography, Weinberg recounts how ORNL, « embarked on a great enterprise: desalinating the sea with cheap nuclear power », with « multi-purpose » plants, « producing water, electricity and process heat at the same time ». The assertion that this was possible, Weinberg reports, « caused a stir within the Atomic Energy Commission ».
In the end, it was President John F. Kennedy who reacted most enthusiastically, speaking on September 25, 1963:
“We are now examining in the United States today the mixed economic-technical question of whether the very large scale nuclear reactors can produce unexpected savings in the simultaneous desalination of water and the generation of electricity? We will have before this decade is out or sooner a tremendous nuclear reactor which makes electricity and at the same time gets fresh water from salt water at a competitive price. What a difference this can make to the United States. And indeed, not only the US but all around the globe where there are so many deserts on the ocean’s edge.”
The idea reached later the ear of AEC’s patron Lewis Strauss.
“The time was 1967, just after the Six-Day War, and the Middle East was much on our minds. The ultimate problem of the Middle East is water – a point that is now perhaps more fully recognized than it was in 1967. Why not build dual-purpose nuclear and electric desalting plants in Egypt, Israel and Jordan – literally make the deserts bloom– and thereby create a major new possibility for a settlement in the Israeli-Arab conflict?”
Lewis conveyed this idea to Eisenhower and Ike published in Life magazine an outline of what became known as the Eisenhower plan, based “on what Lewis and I had discussed”, writes Weinberg.
ORNL then sent a team to visit Egypt, Israel and Lebanon where they were warmly received. The visit brought to Tennessee Israeli and Egyptian engineers who were integrated in the Middle East Study Project,
“which studied what we called ‘nuclear-powered agro-industrial complexes,’ something already studied in 1966. Such complexes would use nuclear reactors to produce electricity and water; the electricity would be used for both domestic and industrial purposes; the water would be used to grow high-value crops.”
“The Middle East project adapted these earlier results to the Israeli-Egyptian situation. A multi-volume report of the Middle East project was issued in which we examined the feasibility of nuclear agro-industrial complexes to be built as national projects in the El-Hamman area near Alexandria in Egypt, and the western Negev area of Israel, and as an international project near the Gaza strip. The implication was that the complexes would be subsidized by the United States.”
“I met with then-ambassador Yitzhak Rabin of Israel for about an hour at the Knoxville airport to tell him about our results. Rabin, who became prime minister of Israel, was skeptical – both as to the political feasibility of a project conducted jointly by Israelis and Arabs, and the economic feasibility of such a huge undertaking. But most of all he suggested that we had extraordinary chutzpah, sitting in Tennessee and figuring out a scheme to resolve a bitter ethnic dispute some six thousand miles away! Of course Rabin had a point on both scores; but I couldn’t refrain from saying, ‘But Mr. Ambassador, is our drawing up plans in Tennessee for agro-industrial complexes for the Middle East is any sillier than Theodore Herzl’s drawing up plans for Israel, in a Vienna café in 1896?’”
Weinberg, clearly unaware of the Dulles brothers‘ operations sabotaging anything good Ike wanted to accomplish regretted: “The Eisenhower-Baker plan was never implemented: the political will needed to support building large reactors in the strife-riven Middle East was lacking…”
The LaRouche Oasis plan, like any other proposal along the same lines, has so far been blocked by the Israeli, American and British sides, and we know only too well what happened to Yitzhak Rabin, assassinated after signing the Oslo Accords, to Shimon Peres, ousted, and to a demonized Yasser Arafat. In addition, LaRouche has been slandered and called an anti-Semite.
On April 13, 2034, LaRouche’s Oasis Plan and its relevance for today was discussed and debated during an international zoom conference and endorsed by several high level ambassadors and diplomats from Palestine, South Africa, Russia and Guyana.
Similar events are being prepared to continue the discussion and turn this dream into reality.
Paris Schiller Institute stages Afghan civil society protest against UNESCO
Paris, Feb. 2024 – On Thursday February 22, between 10:00 am and 1:00 pm CET, members and supporters of the International Schiller Institute, founded and presided by Helga Zepp-LaRouche, gathered peacefully in front of one of the main buildings of the headquarters of UNESCO in Paris (1, rue Miollis, Paris 75015). An appeal (see below), endorsed by both Afghans and respected personalities of four continents, was presented to the Secretary General and other officials of UNESCO.
How it started
Following a highly successful conference in Kabul last November by the Ibn-e-Sina Research & Development Center on the reconstruction of Afghanistan, a group of senior archaeologists of the Afghan Academy of Sciences (ASA), in discussion with the organizers and the invited experts of the Schiller Institute, suggested to launch a common appeal to UNESCO and Western governments to “lift the sanctions against cultural heritage cooperation.”
The Call
“We regret profoundly, says the call, that the Collective West, while weeping crocodile tears over destruction of the world’s cultural heritage, has imposed a selective ban of scientific cooperation on nations mistakenly considered as “opposed to its rules and values.” The complete freeze of all cooperation in the field of archaeology between France and both Syria and Afghanistan, is just one example of this tragedy.”
“The dramatic neglect of international cultural institutions and donors to Afghanistan, the lack of sufficient funds in the field of cultural heritage protection, and the political treatment of international cultural heritage institutions have seriously endangered Afghanistan,” underscores the petition.
Specifically, “UNESCO, which should raise its voice against any new form of ‘cultural and scientific apartheid,’ has repeatedly worsened the situation by politicizing issues beyond its prerogatives.”
To conclude, the signers call
“on the international community to immediately end this form of ‘collective punishment,’ which creates suffering and injustice, promotes ignorance, and endangers humanity’s capacity for mutual respect and understanding.”
Living Spirit of Afghanistan
To date, over 550 signatures have been collected, mainly from both Afghan male (370) and female (140) citizens, whose socio-professional profiles indicates they truly represent the « living spirit of the nation ».
Among the signatories: 62 university lecturers, 27 doctors, 25 teachers, 25 members of the Afghan Academy of Sciences, 23 merchants, 16 civil and women’s rights activists, 16 engineers, 10 directors and deans of private and public universities, 7 political analysts, 6 journalists, 5 prosecutors, several business leaders and dozens of qualified professionals from various sectors.
International support
On four continents (Europe, Asia, America, Africa), senior archaeologists, scientists, researchers, members of the Academy of Sciences, historians and musicians from over 20 countries have welcomed and signed this appeal.
Italian Professor Pino Arlacchi, a former member of the European Parliament and the former head of United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) was the first to sign. Award-winning American filmmaker Oliver Stone, is a more recent signer.
In France, Syria, Italy, the UK and Russia, among the signers one finds senior researchers suffering the consequences of what some have identified as a « New Cultural Cold War. » Superseding the very different opinions they have on many questions, the signatories stand united on the core issue of this appeal: for science to progress, all players, beyond ideological, political and religious differences, and far from the geopolitical logic of ‘blocs’, must be able to exchange freely and cooperate, in particular to protect mankind’s historical and cultural heritage.
Testifying to the firm commitment of the Afghan authorities, the petition has also been endorsed by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Minister of Culture and Arts, and the Minister of Agriculture, as well as senior officials from the Ministries of Higher Education, Water and Energy, Mines, Finance, and others.
“The 46th session of UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee, to be held in New Delhi in July this year, offers UNESCO the opportunity to announce Afghanistan’s full return into world heritage cooperation, if we can have our voice heard,” says Karel Vereycken of the Paris Schiller Institute. “We certainly will not miss transmitting this appeal to HE Vishal V Sharma, India’s permanent representative to UNESCO, recently nominated to make the Delhi 46th session a success.”
For all information, interview requests in EN, FR and NL:
Karel Vereycken, Schiller Institute Paris
00 33 (0)6 19 26 69 38
Full text of the appeal
International Call to Lift Sanctions Against Cultural Heritage Cooperation
Following the international conference, organized by the Ibn-e-Sina Research & Development Center’s in Kabul in early November 2023, on the reconstruction of Afghanistan, a group of researchers launched the following petition:
We, the undersigned, researchers and experts in the domains of the history of civilizations, cultural heritage, archaeology, anthropology, sociology, and many other fields, and other enlightened citizens of the world, in Afghanistan, Syria, Russia, China, and many other countries, launch the following call.
1) We regret profoundly that the “Collective West”, while weeping crocodile tears over destruction of the world’s cultural heritage, has imposed a selective ban of scientific cooperation on nations mistakenly considered as “opposed to its rules and values.” The complete freeze of all cooperation in the field of archaeology between France and both Syria and Afghanistan, is just one example of this tragedy.
2) We request particular attention to the case of Afghanistan. Its neighboring countries, national and international institutions, and countries involved in international conventions for the protection of cultural and natural heritage are committed to cooperation in the field of guarding cultural heritage sites and artifacts and preventing their smuggling and destruction. Therefore, it is expected that in the current situation, they will fully play their role in the protection of Afghanistan’s cultural heritage in accordance with international laws and conventions. However, the dramatic neglect of international cultural institutions and donors to Afghanistan, the lack of sufficient funds in the field of cultural heritage protection, and the political treatment of international cultural heritage institutions have seriously endangered Afghanistan. Undoubtedly, the non-recognition of the Afghan government has dimmed the attention of cultural institutions. Considering the above, we expect these international institutions to renew their full support to protect both the tangible and the intangible cultural heritage of Afghanistan.
3) We regret that UNESCO, which should raise its voice against any new form of “cultural and scientific apartheid,” has repeatedly worsened the situation by politicizing issues beyond its prerogatives.
4) Therefore, we call on the international community to immediately end this form of “collective punishment,” which creates suffering and injustice, promotes ignorance, and endangers humanity’s capacity for mutual respect and understanding.
The progress of scientific knowledge, in a positive climate permitting all to share it, is by its very nature beneficial to each and to all and to the very foundation of a true peace.
SIGNERS:
A. FROM AFGHAN CIVIL SOCIETY:
– Hussain Burhani, Archaeologist, Numismatist, Afghanistan ;
– Ketab Khan Faizi, Archaeologist, Director of the Academy of Sciences at the International Centre for Kushan Studies in Kabul, Afghanistan;
– Stora Ishams Mayar, Archaeologist, member of the Academy of Sciences at the International Centre for Kushan Studies in Kabul, editor in chief of the journal of this mentioned center, Afghanistan;
– Mahmood Jan Drost, Senior Architect, head of protection of old cities of Afghanistan, Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, Afghanistan;
– Ghulam Haidar Kushkaky, Archaeologist, associate professor, Archaeology Investigation Center, Afghanistan ;
— Laieq Ahmadi, Archeologist, Former head, Archeology department of Bamiyan University, Afghanistan;
– Shawkatullah Abed, Chief of staff, Afghan Science Academy, Afghanistan;
– Sardar Ghulam Ali Balouch, Head of Afghanistan Balochs Union, Afghanistan;
– Daud Azimi Shinwari, Ibn-e-Sina Research & Development Center, Germany;
– Abdul Fatah Raufi, Ibn-e-Sina Research & Development Center, Kabul, Afghanistan;
– Mirwais Popal, Dip, Master, Ibn-e-Sina Research & Development Center, Germany;
B. FROM ABROAD:
(Russia, China, USA, Indonesia, France, Angola, Germany, Turkiye, Italy, UK, Mexico, Sweden, Iran, Belgium, Argentina, Czech Republic, Syria, Congo Brazzaville, Yemen, Venezuela, Pakistan, Spain, Canada, Democratic Republic of Congo.)
– H.E. Mr Mohammad Homayoon Azizi, Afghanistan’s Ambassador to Paris, UNESCO and ICESCO, France;
— Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento, Researcher at the National Scientific Research Centre (CNRS), Archaeologist specializing in Central Asia; Former director of the Delegation of French Archaeologists in Afghanistan (DAFA) (2014-2018), France;
– Inès Safi, CNRS, Researcher in Theoretical Nanophysics, France;
– Pierre Leriche, Archeologist, Director of Research Emeritus at CNRS-AOROC, Scientific Director of the Urban Archaeology of the Hellenized Orient research program, France;
– Nadezhda A. Dubova, Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, Dr. in Biology, Prof. in History. Head of the Russian-Turkmen Margiana archaeological expedition, Russian Academy of Science (RAS), Russia;
— Alexandra Vanleene, Archaeologist, specialist in Gandhara Buddhist Art, Researcher, Independant Academic Advisor Harvard FAS CAMLab, France;
– Raffaele Biscione, retired, associate Researcher, Consiglio Nazionale delle Recerche (CNR); former first researcher of CNR, former director of the CNR archaeological mission in Eastern Iran (2009-2022), Italy;
— Sandra Jaeggi-Richoz, Professor, Historian and archaeologist of the Antiquity, France;
– Dr. Razia Sultanova, Professor, Cambridge University, UK;
– Dr. Houmam Saad, Archaeologist, Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums, Syria;
– Estelle Ottenwelter, Institute of Archaeology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Natural Sciences and Archaeometry, Post-Doc, Czech Republic;
– Didier Destremau, author, diplomat, former French Ambassador, President of the Franco-Syrian Friendship Association (AFS), France ;
– Wang Feng, Professor, South-West Asia Department of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS), China;
– Dr. Engin Beksaç, Professor, Trakya University, Department of Art History, Turkiye;
– Bruno Drweski, Professor, National Institute of Oriental Languages and Civilizations (INALCO), France;
– Maurizio Abbate, National President of National Agency of Cultural Activities (ENAC), Italy;
– Patricia Lalonde, Former Member of the European Parliament, vice-president of Geopragma, author of several books on Afghanistan, France;
– Pino Arlacchi, Professor of sociology, Former Member of the European Parliament, former head of United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Italy;
– Oliver Stone, Academy Award-winning Film director, Producer, and Screenwriter;
– Graham E. Fuller, Author, former Station chief for the CIA in Kabul until 1978, former Vice-Chair of the National Intelligence Council (1986), USA;
– Prof. H.C. Fouad Al Ghaffari, Advisor to Prime Minister of Yemen for BRICS Countries affairs, Yemen;
– Farhat Asif, President of Institute of Peace and Diplomatic Studies (IPDS), Pakistan;
— Dursun Yildiz, Director, Hydropolitics Association, Türkiye;
– Irène Neto, president, Fundacao Dr. Antonio Agostinho Neto (FAAN), Angola;
– Luc Reychler, Professor international politics, University of Leuven, Belgium;
– Pierre-Emmanuel Dupont, Expert and Consultant in public International Law, Senior Lecturer at the Institut Catholique de Vendée, France;
— Irene Rodríguez, Departamento de Historia, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina;
– Dr. Ririn Tri Ratnasari, Professor, Head of Center for Halal Industry and Digitalization, Advisory Board at Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Airlangga, Indonesia;
– Dr. Clifford A. Kiracofe, Author, retired Professor of International Relations, USA;
– Bernard Bourdin, Dominican priest, Philosophy and Theology teacher, Institut Catholique de Paris (ICP), France;
– Dr. jur. Wolfgang Bittner, Author, Göttingen, Germany;
– Annie Lacroix-Riz, Professor Emeritus of Contemporary History, Université Paris-Cité, France;
– Mohammad Abdo Al-Ibrahim, Ph.D in Philology and Literature, University Lecturer and former editor in chief of the Syria Times, Syria;
– Jean Bricmont, Author, retired Physics Professor, Belgium;
– Syed Mohsin Abbas, Journalist, Broadcaster, Political Analyst and Political Justice activist, Pakistan;
– Eduardo D. Greaves PhD, Professor of Physics, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas, Venezuela;
– Dora Muanda, Scientific Director, Kinshasa Science and Technology Week, Democratic Republic of Congo;
– Dr. Christian Parenti, Professor of Political Economy, John Jay College CUNY, New York, USA;
– Diogène Senny, President of the Panafrican Ligue UMOJA, Congo Brazzaville;
– Waheed Seyed Hasan, Journalist based in Qatar, former Special correspondent of IRNA in New Delhi, former collaborator of Tehran Times, Iran;
– Alain Corvez, Colonel (retired), Consultant International Strategy consultant, France;
– Stefano Citati, Journalist, Italy;
– Gaston Pardo, Journalist, graduate of the National University of Mexico. Co-founder of the daily Liberacion, Mexico;
– Jan Oberg, PhD, Peace and Future Research, Art Photographer, Lund, Sweden.
– Julie Péréa, City Councilor for the town of Poussan (Hérault), delegate for gender equality and the fight against domestic violence, member of the Sète Agglopole Méditerranée gender equality committee, France;
– Helga Zepp-LaRouche, Founder and International President of the Schiller Institute, Germany;
– Abid Hussein, independent journalist, Pakistan;
– Anne Lettrée, Founder and President of the Garden of Titans, Cultural Relations Ambassador between France and China for the Greater Paris region, France;
– Karel Vereycken, Painter-engraver, amateur Art Historian, Schiller Institute, France;
– Carlo Levi Minzi, Pianist, Musician, Italy;
– Leena Malkki Brobjerg, Opera singer, Sweden;
– Georges Bériachvili, Pianist, Musicologist, France;
– Jacques Pauwels, Historian, Canada;
C. FROM AFGHAN AUTHORITIES
– Sher Mohammad Abbas Stanikzai, Deputy Foreign Minister, Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA);
– Mawlawi Muhibullah Wasiq, Head of Foreign Minister’s Office, IEA;
– Waliwullah Shahin, Member of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, IEA;
– Sayedull Afghani, Member of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, IEA;
– Hekmatullah Zaland, Member of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, IEA;
– Shafi Azam, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, IEA;
– Atiqullah Azizi, Deputy Minister of Culture and Art, Ministry of Information and Culture, IEA;
– Ghorzang Farhand, Ministry of Information and Culture, IEA;
– Ghulam Dastgir Khawari, Advisor of Ministry of Higher Education, IEA;
– Mawlawi Rahmat Kaka Zadah, Member of ministry of Interior Affairs, IEA;
– Mawlawi Arefullah, Member of Interior Affairs, IEA;
– Ataullah Omari, Acting Agriculture Minister, IEA;
– Mawlawi Hussain Ahmad, Head of office in Ministry of Agriculture, IEA:
– Musa Noorzai, Member of Ministry of Agriculture, IEA;
– Mawlawi Hussain Ahmad, Head of office, Ministry of Agriculture, IEA;
– Mawlawi Shar Aqa, Head of Kunar Agriculture Administration, IEA;
– Matiulah Mujadidi, Head of Communication of Ministry of Finance, IEA;
– Zabiullah Noori, Executive Manager, Ministry of Finance, IEA;
– Akbar Wazizi, Member of Ministry of Finance, IEA;
– Nasrullah Ebrahimi, Auditor, Ministry of Finance, IEA;
– Mir M. Haroon Noori, Representative, Ministry of Economy, IEA;
– Abdul Qahar Mahmodi, Ministry of Commerce, IEA;
– Dr. Ghulam Farooq Azam, Adviser, Ministry of Water & Energy (MoWE), IEA;
– Faisal Mahmoodi, Investment Facilitation Expert, Ministry of Mines and Petroleum, IEA;
– Rustam Hafiz Yar, Ministry of Transportation, IEA;
– Qudratullah Abu Hamza, Governor of Kunar, IEA;
– Mansor Faryabi, Member of Kabul Municipality, IEA;
– Mohammad Sediq Patman, Former Deputy Minister of Education for Academic Affairs, IEA;
COMPLEMENTARY LIST
A. FROM AFGHANS
- Jawad Nikzad, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Akram Azimi, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Najibullah Totakhel, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Germany
- Ghulam Farooq Ansari, Professor, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Imran Zakeria, Researcher at Regional Studies Center, Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan, Ibn Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Subhanullah Obaidi, Doctor, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Germany ;
- Ali Shabeez, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Germany ;
- Mawlawi Wahid Ameen, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Shar M. Amir Zadah, Ibne-eSina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Sayed Rafiullah Halim, Professor, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul Afghanistan ;
- Nazar Mohmmad Ragheb, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Ali Sina Masoumi, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Faisal Mahmoodi, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Fatima Basir, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Muneera Aman, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Shakoor, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Waris Ebad, Employee of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Afghanistan ;
- Waisullah Sediqi, Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Sayed Hakim Aria, Employee of Ministry of Information and Culture, Afghanistan ;
- Nayebuddin Ekrami, Employee of Ministry of information and Culture, Afghanistan ;
- Latifa Azimi, Former Employee of Ministry of Education, Afghanistan ;
- Latifa Noori, Former Employee of Ministry of Education, Afghanistan ;
- Habibullah Haqani, Employee of Kabul Municipality, Afghanistan ;
- Shafiqullah Baburzai, Cultural Heritage, Afghanistan ;
- Abdullah Kamawal, Cultural Heritage, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Rashid Lodin, Cultural Heritage, Afghanistan ;
- Asef Nang, Cultural Heritage, Afghanistan ;
- Awal Khan Shekib, Member of Afghanistan Regional Studies Center, Afghanistan ;
- Mohammad Anwar Fayaz, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Farhad Ahmadi, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Fayqa Lahza Faizi, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Hakim Haidar, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Rahimullah Harifal, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Sharifullah Dost, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Eshaq Momand, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Khalil Rahman Barekzal, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Ghulam Haidar Kushkaki, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Ghulam Nabi Hanifi, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Marina Bahar, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Sayed Muhaidin Hashimi, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Majid Nadim, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Elaha Maqsoodi, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Khadim Ahmad Haqiqi, Lecturer, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Shahidullah Safi, Member, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Wahab Hamdard, Member, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Burhanullah Niazi, Member, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- M. Alam Eshaq Zai, Member, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Ghulam Hasan Farmand, Member, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Zalmai Hewad Mal, Member, Afghanistan Science Academy, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Rahman Atash, Head of Afghanistan National Development Company (NDC), Afghanistan ;
- Obaidullah, Head of Public Library, Afghanistan ;
- Sayed Abdul Maqdam, Head of Khawar construction company, Afghanistan ;
- Zaki Zarifi, Head of Zarifi company, Afghanistan ;
- Jamshid Faizi, Head of Faizi company, Afghanistan ;
- M. Yasin Farahman, Head of Agriculture Center, Afghanistan ;
- Mawlawi Nik M. Nikmal, Head of Planning in Technical Administration, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Wahid Rahimi, Member of Bashtani Bank, Afghanistan ;
- M. Daud Mangal, Head of Ariana Afghan Airlines, Afghanistan ;
- Mostafa Yari, entrepreneur, Afghanistan;
- Gharwal Roshan, Head of Kabul International Airfield, Afghanistan ;
- Eqbal Mirzad, Head of New Kabul City Project, Afghanistan ;
- Najibullah Sadiq, Vice-president of Afghan Chamber of Commerce and Indunstry (ACCI), Afghanistan;
- M. Yunis Mohmand, Vice-president of ACCI, Afghanistan;
- Khanjan Alikozai, Member of ACCI, Afghanistan;
- Mawlawi Abdul Rashid, Kabul Municipality, Afghanistan ;
- Atiqullah Safi, Employee of Kabul Municipality, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Jalil Safi, Employee of Kabul Municipality, Afghanistan ;
- Hujat Fazli, Head of Harakat, Afghanistan Investment Climate Facility Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Mehrab Hamidi, Member of Economical Commission, Afghanistan;
- Hamid Pazhwak, Economist, Afghanistan ;
- M. Awaz Ali Alizai, Economist, Afghanistan ;
- Shamshad Omar, Economist, Afghanistan ;
- Helai Fahang, Economy Specialist, Afghanistan ;
- Maryam Alikozai, Economy Specialist, Afghanistan ;
- Dunya Farooz, Economy Specialist, Afghanistan ;
- Soman Khamoosh, Economy Specialist, Afghanistan ;
- Drs. Shokoria Yousofi, Bachelor of Economy, Afghanistan;
- Sharifa Wardak, Specialist of Agriculture, Afghanistan;
- M. Asef Dawlat Shahi, Specialist of Chemistry, Afghanistan;
- Pashtana Hamami, Specialist of Statistics, Afghanistan;
- Asma Karimi, Master of Management, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Ahmad Zaki Afghanyar, Vice-President of Herat Health committee, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Hashem Mudaber, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Hekmatullah Arian, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Abdul Wahab Rahmani, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Karima Rahimyar, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Sayeeda Basiri, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Emran Sayeedi, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Abdul Hadi Dawlatzai, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Ghani Naseri, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Nafisa Naseri, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Abdul Ghani Naseri, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Mohammad Younis Shouaib, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Halima Akbari, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Manizha Emaq, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Shafiq Shinwari, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Akbar Jan Foolad, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Haidar Omar, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Ehsanuddin Ehsan, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Abdul Wakil Matin, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Abdul Matalib, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Azizi Amer, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Nasr Sajar, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Humayon Hemat, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Humaira Fayaq, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Sadruddin Tajik, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Abdul Baqi Ahmad Zai, Surgery Specialist, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Beqis Kohistani, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Nafisa Nasiri, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Aziza Yousuf, Head of Malalai Hospital, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Yasamin Hashimi, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Zuhal Najimi, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Ahmad Salem Sedeqi, Medical Doctor, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Fazel Raman, veterinary, Afghanistan;
- Khatera Anwary, Health, Afghanistan;
- Rajina Noori, Member of Afghanistan Journalists Union, Afghanistan ;
- Sajad Nikzad, Journalist, Afghanistan ;
- Ahmad Suhaib Hasrat, Journalist, Afghanistan ;
- Shar Aqa Karimi, Journalist, Afghanistan ;
- Sayed Mohammad Suhrabi , Journalist, Afghanistan ;
- Mohammad Nasir Kuhzad, Journalist and Political Analyst, Afghanistan ;
- Fazel Menallah, Political Analyst, Afghanistan;
- M. Wahid Benish, Political Analyst, Afghanistan ;
- Mahmood Jan Shafizada, Political Analyst, Afghanistan ;
- Fazel Rahman Orya, Political Analyst, Afghanistan ;
- Zarghon Shah Shinwari, Political Analyst, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Ghafor Shinwari, Political Analyst, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Ahmad Yousufi, Dean, Kateb University, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Yayia Balaghat, Scientific Vice-President, Kateb University, Afghanistan ;
- Chaman Shah Etemadi, Head of Gharjistan University, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Mesbah, Head of Salam University, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Pirzad Ahmad Fawad, Kabul University;
- Dr. Nasir Nawidi, Dean of a Private University, Afghanistan;
- Zabiullah Fazli, Dean of a Private University, Afghanistan;
- Ramish Adib, Vice of a Private University, Afghanistan;
- M. Taloot Muahid, Dean of a Private University, Afghanistan;
- Ebrahim Ansari, School Manager, Afghanistan;
- Abas Ali Zimozai, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Arshad Rahimi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Fasihuddin Fasihi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Waisuddin Jawad, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- M. Murtaza Sharzoi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- M. Matin Monis, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Mohammad Wahid Benish, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Hussian Iqbal, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Muhsin Reshad, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Mohammad Sadiq Baqori, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Mohammad Zahir Halimi, Univ. Lecturer , Afghanistan ;
- Rohla Qurbani, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Murtaza Rezaee, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Ghulam Rasoul Qarluq, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Najim Wahidi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- M. Rashid Iqbal, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Rahman Matin, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- M. Mujtaba Amin, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Amanullah Faqiri, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Abuzar Khpelwak Zazai, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Belal Tayab, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- M. Adel Hakimi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Wasiqullah Ghyas, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Faridduin Atar, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Safiullah Jawhar, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Amir Jan Saqib, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Ahmad Shekib Rahmani, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- M. Gulzar Hashimi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- Taj Mohammad, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Hekmatullah Mirzad, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Haq Atid, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan ;
- M. Fahim Momand, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Ahmad Fawad Ehsas, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Naqibullah Sediqi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Maiwand Wahidi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- M. Nazir Hayati, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Najiba Rahmani, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Abeda Baba Karkhil, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Dr. M. Qayoum Karim, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Sayed Sharif Shabir, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Ahmad Walid Howaida, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Zalmai Rahib, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Sadiq Baqori, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Mir Zafaruddin Ansari, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Atta Mohammad Alwak, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Zabiullah Iqbal, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Hasan Fazaili, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- M. Jawad Jalili, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Mukhtar Ali Nasto, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Namatullah Nabawi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Ghulam Abas Noori, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Mustafa Anwari, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Fakhria Popal, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Shiba Sharzai, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Marya Hashimi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Nilofar Hashimi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Munisa Hasan, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Nazifa Azimi, Univ. Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Sweeta Sharify, Lecturer; Afghanistan;
- Fayaz Gul, Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Zakia Ahmad Zai, Lecturer, Afghanistan;
- Nigani Barati, Education Specialist, Afghanistan ;
- Azeeta Nazhand, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Sughra, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Nadia Sharif, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Maryam Omari, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Masoud, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Zubair Ahmad, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Khalil Ahmad, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Khadija Omid, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Haida Rasouli, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Hemat Hamad, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Wazir Safi, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Mohammad Qasim, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Zamin Shah, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Sayed Qayas, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Mehrabuddin, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Zahidullah Zahid, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Akmal Mahros, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Sadia Mohammadi, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- Mina Amiri, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- M. Sajad Nikzad, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Mursal Nikzad, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Qadir Shahab, Teacher, Afghanistan;
- M. Hasan Sahi, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Mirwais Haqmal, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Leeda Khurasai, Teacher, Afghanistan ;
- Karishma Hashimi, Instructor, Afghanistan;
- Majeed Shams, Architect, Afghanistan;
- Azimullah Esmati, Master of Civil Engineering, Afghanistan;
- Najibullah Hussaini, Engineer, Afghanistan ;
- Burhanuddin Nezami, Engineer, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Hafiz Hafizi, Engineer, Afghanistan ;
- Bahir, Engineer, Afghanistan;
- Wali Bayan, Engineer, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Khaliq Najir, Engineer, Afghanistan;
- Diana Niazi, Engineer, Afghanistan;
- Imam Jan, Engineer, Afghanistan ;
- Khalil Ahmad Nadem, Engineer, Afghanistan;
- Sayeed Aqa, Engineer, Afghanistan ;
- Edris Rasouli, Engineer, Afghanistan ;
- Raz Mohammad, Engineer of Mines, Afghanistan ;
- Nasrullah Rahimi, Technical Engineer, Afghanistan ;
- Ehsanullah, Helmand, Construction Engineer, Netherlands;
- Ahmad Hamad, Technologist, Afghanistan ;
- Akmal Ahmadi, Technologist, Afghanistan ;
- Ershad Hurmati, Technologist, Afghanistan ;
- M. Akram Shafim, Technologist, Afghanistan ;
- M. Akbar Ehsan, Technologist, Afghanistan ;
- Raziullah, Technologist, Afghanistan ;
- Zaki Khorrami, IT Officer, Afghanistan ;
- Osman Nikzad, Graphic Designer, Afghanistan ;
- Maryam Ayani, Carpet Weaver, Afghanistan ;
- Be be sima Hashimi, Tailor, Afghanistan ;
- Maryam Masoumi, Tailor, Afghanistan ;
- Roya Mohammadi, Craftsman, Afghanistan ;
- Nadia Sayes, Craftsman, Afghanistan ;
- Nazdana Ebad, Craftsman, Afghanistan ;
- Sima Ahmadi , Bachelor of Biology, Afghanistan;
- Sima Rasouli, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Khatera Nawabi, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Haji Noor Agha Haqyar, Merchant, Afghanstan;
- Husna Anwari, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Nargis Hashimi, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Shakira Barish, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Nasima Darwish, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Wajiha Haidari, Merchant of Jawzjan, Afghanistan ;
- Shagul, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Fatima Nik Rasoul, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Haji Farid Alikozai, Merchant, Afghanistan;
- Nigina Nawabi, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Masouda Nazimi, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Najla Kohistani, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Kerisma Jawhari, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Hasina Hashimi, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Husna Anwari, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Maaz Baburzai, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Freshta Safari, Merchant, Afghanistan;
- Yalda Azimi, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Azim Jan Baba Karkhil, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Akhtar Mohammad, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- M. Haroon Ahmadzai, Merchant, Afghanistan ;
- Azizullah Faizi, Former head of Afghanistan Cricket Board, Afghanistan ;
- Wakil Akhar, Prosecutor, Afghanistan ;
- Akhtar M. Azimi, Prosecutor, Afghanistan;
- Shabnam Noori, Prosecutor, Afghanistan;
- Be be Abeda Wayar, Prosecutor, Afghanistan;
- Madina Ahmad Zai, Prosecutor, Afghanistan;
- Shakila Joya, Former Employee of Attorney General, Afghanistan;
- Sardar M. Akbar Bashash, Member, Afghanistan Balochs Union, Afghanistan ;
- Eng. Abdul Dayan Balouch, Spokesperson of Afghanistan Balochs Union, Afghanistan ;
- Shah Mahmood Lahoti, Member of Afghanistan Balochs Union, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Khaliq Barekzai, Advisor, Afghanistan Balochs Union, Afghanistan ;
- Salahuddin Ayoubi Balouch, Advisor, Afghanistan Balochs Union, Afghanistan ;
- Faizuddin Lashkari Balouch, Member, Afghanistan Balochs Union, Afghanistan ;
- Sayed Ishaq Gilani, head of the National Solidarity Movement of Afghanistan, IEA;
- Haji Zalmai Latifi, Representative, Qizilbash tribes, Afghanistan ;
- Gul Nabi Ahmad Zai, Former Commander of Kabul Garrison, Afghanistan ;
- Ghulam Hussain Rezaee, Member, Habitat Organization, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Amani Adiba, Doctor of Liberal Arts in Architecture and Urban Planning, Afghanistan;
- Ismael Paienda, Afghan Peace Activist, France;
- Mohammad Belal Rahimi, Head of Peace institution, Afghanistan ;
- M. Mushtaq Hanafi, Head of Sayadan council, Afghanistan ;
- Sabira Waizi, Founder of T.W.P.S., Afghanistan ;
- Majabin Sharifi, Member of Women Network Organization, Afghanistan;
- Shekiba Saadat, Former head of women affairs, Afghanistan ;
- Atya Salik, Women rights activist, Afghanistan ;
- Fatima Mahmoodi, Women rights activist, Afghanistan;
- Diana Rohin, Women rights activist , Afghanistan;
- Amena Hashimi, Head of Women Organization, Afghanistan;
- Fatanh Sharif, Former employee of Gender equality, Afghanistan;
- Sediq Mansour Ansari, Civil Activist, Afghanistan ;
- Sebghatullah Najibi, Civil Activist, Afghanistan ;
- Naemullah Nasiri, Civil Activist, Afghanistan;
- Reha Ramazani, Civil Activist, Afghanistan ;
- Lia Jawad, Civil Activist, Afghanistan;
- Arezo Khurasani, Social Activist, Afghanistan ;
- Beheshta Bairn, Social Activist, Afghanistan;
- Samsama Haidari, Social Activist, Afghanistan;
- Shabnam Nikzad, Humans Rights Activist, Afghanistan;
- Mliha Sadiqi, Head of Young Development Organization, Afghanistan;
- Mehria, Sharify, University Student;
- Shiba Azimi, Member of IPSO Organization, Afghanistan;
- Nadira Rashidi, Master of Management, Afghanistan;
- Sefatullah Atayee, Banking, Afghanistan;
- Khatira Yousufi, Employee of RTA, Afghanistan;
- Yalda Mirzad , Employee of Breshna Company, Afghanistan;
- Izzatullah Sherzad, Employee, Afghanistan;
- Erfanullah Salamzai , Afghanistan;
- Naser Abdul Rahim Khil, Afghanistan;
- Ghulam Rasoul Faizi, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Mir Agha Hasan Khil, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Ghafor Muradi, Afghanistan;
- Gul M. Azhir, Afghanistan;
- Gul Ahmad Zahiryan, Afghanistan;
- Shamsul Rahman Shams, Afghanistan;
- Khaliq Stanekzai, Afghanistan;
- M. Daud Haidari, Afghanistan;
- Marhaba Subhani, Afghanistan;
- Maazullah Nasim, Afghanistan;
- Haji Mohammad Tayeb, Afghanistan;
- Ali Sina Masoumi, Afghanistan ;
- Sweeta Sadiqi Hotak, Afghanistan ;
- Khatira Anwari, Afghanistan ;
- Fatima Sharzad, Afghanistan ; Momen Shah Kakar, Afghanistan ;
- Shah Rukh Raufi, Afghanistan ;
- Hanifa Rasouli, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Qudsia Ebrahimi, Afghanistan ;
- Mahmood Haqiqat, Afghanistan ;
- Nasir Abdul Rahim Khan, Kabul, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Hamid Ahmadzai, Afghanistan ;
- Sardar Khan Sirat, Afghanistan ;
- Zurmatullah Ahmadi, Afghanistan ;
- Yasar Khogyani, Afghanistan ;
- Shar Sha Lodi, Afghanistan ;
- Ahmad Shah Omar, Afghanistan ;
- M. Azam Khan Ahmad Zai, Afghanistan;
- Nadia Farooq Sharzoi, Afghanistan;
- Shar Ali Tazari, Afghanistan ;
- Mayel Aqa Hakim, Afghanistan ;
- Khatira Hesar, Afghanistan ;
- Tamim Mehraban, Afghanistan ;
- Lina Noori, Afghanistan ;
- Khubaib Ghufran, Afghanistan ;
- M. Yasin Farahmand, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Mir M. Ayoubi, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Namatullah Nabawi, Afghanistan ;
- Abozar Zazai, Afghanistan ;
- Atiqullah Rahimi, Afghanistan ;
- Fahim Ahmad Sultan, Afghanistan ;
- Humaira Farhangyar, Afghanistan ;
- Imam M. Wrimaj, Afghanistan ;
- Masoud Ashna, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Yahia Baiza, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Besmila, Afghanistan ;
- Ehsan Shorish, Germany;
- Irshad, Omer, Afghanistan;
- Musa Noorzai, Afghanistan;
- Lida Noori Nazhand, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Abdul Masood Panah, Afghanistan;
- Gholam Sachi Hassanzadah, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Sayed Ali Eqbal, Afghanistan;
- Hashmatullah Atmar, Afghanistan;
- Ahmad Matin Safi, Afghanistan;
- Ahmad Helmand, Afghanistan;
- Ehsanullah Helmand, Afghanistan;
- Izazatullah Sherzad, Afghanistan;
- Hafizullah Omarzai, Afghanistan;
- Hedayatullah Hilal, Afghanistan;
- Edris Ramez, student, Afghanistan;
- Amina Saadaty, Afghanistan;
- Muska Hamidi, Afghanistan;
- Raihana Ahmadi, Afghanistan;
- Zuhal Sherzad, Afghanistan;
- Meelad Ahmad, Afghanistan;
- Devah Kubra Falcone, Germany;
- Maryam Baburi, Germany;
- Suraya Paikan, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Fatah Ahmadzai, Afghanistan ;
- Dr. Mohammad Zalmai, Afghanistan ;
- Hashmatullah Parwarni, Afghanistan ;
- Asadullah, Afghanistan;
- Hedayat ullah Hillal, Afghanistan;
- Najibullah Zazai, Afghanistan;
- M. Yousuf Ahmadi, Afghanistan;
- Ahmad Reshad Reka, Afghanistan;
- Sayed Ahmad Arghandiwal, Afghanistan;
- Nooria Noozai, Afghanistan;
- Eng. Fahim Osmani, Afghanistan;
- Wafiullah Maaraj, Afghanistan;
- Roya Shujaee, Afghanistan;
- Shakira Shujaee, Afghanistan ;
- Adina Ranjbar, Afghanistan;
- Ayesha Shafiq, Afghanistan;
- Hajira Mujadidi, Afghanistan ;
- Abdul Zahir Shekib, Afghanistan;
- Zuhra Mohammad Zai, Afghanistan;
- Razia Ghaws, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Sabor Mubariz, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Khaliq Ferdows, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Shakoor Salangi, Afghanistan;
- Nasir Ahmad Basharyar, Afghanistan;
- Mohammad Mukhtar Sharifi, Afghanistan;
- Mukhtar Ahmad Haqtash, Afghanistan;
- Yousuf Amin Zazai, Afghanistan;
- Zakiri Sahib, Afghanistan;
- Mirwais Ghafori, Afghanistan;
- Nesar Rahmani, Afghanistan;
- Shar M. Amir Zadah, Afghanistan;
- Yasin Farahmand, Afghanistan;
- Faizul Haq Faizan, Afghanistan;
- Khaibar Sarwary, Afghanistan;
- Ali Sina Masoumi, Afghanistan;
- Hamidullah Akhund Zadah, Afghanistan;
- Dr. Benish, Afghanistan;
- Hayatullah Fazel, Afghanistan;
- Faizullah Habibi, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Hamid Lyan, Afghanistan;
- Abdul Qayoum Qayoum Zadah, Afghanistan;
- Qazi Qudratullah Safi, Afghanistan;
- Noor Agha Haqyar, Afghanistan;
- Maryan Aiany, Afghanistan;
B. FROM ABROAD
- Odile Mojon, Schiller Institute, Paris, France ;
- Johanna Clerc, Choir Conductor, Schiller Institute Chorus, France ;
- Sébastien Perimony, Africa Department, Schiller Institute, France ;
- Christine Bierre, Journalist, Chief Editor of Nouvelle Solidarité, monthly, France ;
- Marcia Merry Baker, agriculture expert, EIR, Co-Editor, USA ;
- Bob Van Hee,Redwood County Minnesota Commissioner, USA ;
- Dr. Tarik Vardag, Doctor in Natural Sciences (RER), Business Owner, Germany;
- Richard Freeman, Department of Physical Economy, Schiller Institute, USA ;
- Liliana Gorini, chairwoman of Movisol and singer, Italy;
- Ulrike Lillge,Editor Ibykus Magazine, Berlin, Germany ;
- Michelle Rasmussen, Vice President, Schiller Institute in Denmark, amateur musician;
- Feride Istogu Gillesberg, Vice President, Schiller Institute in Denmark;
- Jason Ross, Science Department, Schiller Institute, USA ;
- Dennis Small, Director of the Economic Department, Schiller Institute, USA ;
- Robert “Bob” Baker, Agriculture Commission, Schiller Institute, USA ;
- Dr. Wolfgang Lillge, Medical Doctor, Editor, Fusion Magazine, Berlin, Germany ;
- Ulf Sandmark, Vice-Chairman of the Belt and Road Institute, Sweden ;
- Mary Jane Freeman, Schiller Institute, USA ;
- Hussein Askary, South West Asia Coordinator, Schiller Institute, Sweden ;
- David Dobrodt, EIR News, USA ;
- Klaus Fimmen, 2nd Vice-Chairman of the Bürgerrechtsbewegung Solidarität (Büso) party, Germany;
- Christophe Lamotte, Consulting Engineer, France ;
- Richard Burden, EIR production staff, USA ;
- Rolf Gerdes, Electronic Engineer, Germany;
- Marcella Skinner, USA ;
- Delaveau Mathieu, Farm Worker, France ;
- Shekeba Jentsch, StayIN, Board, Germany;
- Bernard Carail, retired Postal Worker, France ;
- Etienne Dreyfus, Social Activist, France ;
- Harrison Elfrink, Social Activist, USA ;
- Jason Seidmann,USA ;
Letter of the minister of Information and Culture
Since Western researchers, based on what happened in the past, wondered about the current Afghan government’s actual policy on the issue of preservation of cultural and historical heritage, the Ibn-e-Sina Research and Development Center questioned the relevant authorities in Kabul.
At the end of January 2024, the Minister of Arts and Culture, in an hand-signed letter, provided them (and the world) with the following response, which completely clarifies the matter.
Transcript below, bold as in the original.
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
Ministry of Information and Culture
Letter N° 220, Jan. 31, 2024
To the attention of Ibn-e-Sina R&D Centre, International experts and cultural organizations and to those it concerns:
The ministry of Information and culture of the Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA) has, among others, the following tasks in its portfolio:
–To establish a suitable environment for the growth of genuine Afghan culture;
–To protect national identity, cultural diversity, and national unity;
–To preserve tangible and intangible cultural heritage;
–To support the development of creativities, initiatives and activities of various segments of the society in general and of the Afghan youth in particular;
–To support the freedom of speech;
–Development of tourism industry;
–Introduction and presentation of Afghan culture regionally and internationally, to transform Afghanistan into an important cultural hub and crossroads in the near future.
We would like to confirm that with preservation of tangible and intangible cultural heritage we mean all Afghan cultural heritage belonging to all periods of history, whether it belongs to Islamic or non/pre-Islamic periods of history.
This ministry expresses its concerns that due to insufficient means it is not able to preserve the Afghan cultural heritage sufficiently.
Therefore this ministry asks UNESCO and other international organizations, working on preservation of the world’s tangible and intangible cultural heritage, to support Afghanistan in preservation of its tangible and intangible cultural heritage, including the ones belonging to Islamic and non/pre-Islamic periods of its history. The cultural heritage of Afghanistan does deserve to be preserved without any political motivations.
Besides, this ministry also confirms it is ready for all kind of cooperation with all national and international organizations, working on preservation of world cultural heritage.
The ministry of Information and culture of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA) supports and appreciates all efforts of the Ibn-e-Sina R&D centre and their international experts in appealing for urgent attention of national and international organizations and experts to resume their support and cooperation with Afghanistan to preserve its cultural heritage, an important part of world cultural and historical heritage.
Sincerely,
Mowlavi Atiqullah Azizi
Deputy Minister of Culture and Art
moicdocymentsliaison@gmail.com
Afghanistan: Qosh Tepa canal and prospects of Aral Sea basin water management
Presentation of Karel Vereycken at the second panel discussion of the « Water for Peace » seminar organized by the Schiller Institute on January 9, 2024 in Paris.
Let’s start with current events. In August 2021, faced with the Taliban takeover, the United States hastily withdrew from Afghanistan, one of the world’s poorest countries, whose population has doubled in 20 years to 39.5 million.
While the UN acknowledged that the country was facing « the worst humanitarian crisis » in the post-war era, overnight all international aid, which represented more than half of the Afghan budget, was suspended. At the same time, $9.5 billion of the country’s central bank assets, held in accounts at the US Federal Reserve and a number of European banks, were frozen.
Qosh Tepa canal
Despite these dramatic conditions, the Afghan government, via its state construction group, the National Development Company (NDC), committed $684 million to a major river infrastructure project, the Qosh Tepa Canal, which had been suspended since the Soviet invasion.
In less than a week, over 7,000 drivers flocked from the four corners of the country to work day and night on the first section of the canal, the first phase of which was completed in record time.
Politically, the canal project is a clear expression of the re-birth of an inclusive Afghanistan, as the region is mainly inhabited by Turkmen and Tajik populations, whereas the government is exclusively in the hands of the Pashtuns. The latter represent 57% rather than 37% of the country.
According to the FAO, 62.5% of the Abu Darya’s water comes from Tajikistan, 27.5% from Afghanistan (22 million m3), 6.3% from Uzbekistan, 1.9% from Kyrgyzstan and 1.9% from Turkmenistan.
The river irrigates 469,000 ha of farmland in Tajikistan, 2,000,000 ha in Turkmenistan and 2,321,000 ha in Uzbekistan.
So it’s only natural that Afghanistan should harness some of the river’s waters (10 million m³ out of a total of 61.5 to 80 million m³ per year) to irrigate its territory and boost its ailing agricultural production
By harnessing part of the waters of the Amu Daria river, the new 285 km-long canal will eventually irrigate 550,000 ha of arid land in ancient Bactria to the north, the « Land of a 1000 Cities » and« The Land of Oases » whose incomparable fertility was already praised by the 1st-century Greek historian Strabo.
In October 2023, the first 108 km section was impounded.
Agricultural production has been kick-started to consolidate the riverbanks, and 250,000 jobs are being created.
While opium poppy cultivation has been virtually eradicated in the Helmhand, the aim is to double the country’s wheat production and to become a grain net exporter.
Today, whatever one may think of the regime, the Afghans, who for 40 years have been self-destructing in proxy wars in the service of the Soviets and Americans, have decided to take their destiny into their own hands. Putting an end to the systemic corruption that has enriched an international oligarchy, they are determined to build their country and give their children a future, notably by making water available for irrigation, for health and for the inhabitants.
How did the world react?
On November 7, in The Guardian, Daanish Mustafa, a professor of « critical geography », explains that Pakistan must rid itself of the colonial spirit of water.
In his view, the floods that hit Pakistan in 2010 and 2022 demonstrate that « colonial » river and canal development is a recipe for disaster. It’s time, he concludes, to « decolonize » our imaginations on the subject of water by abandoning all our vanitous desires to manage water.
On November 9, the Khaama Press News agency reported:
« Tensions have risen between the de facto authorities of Afghanistan and Pakistan due to the ongoing deportation of Afghan migrants. Most recently, Pakistan has called for a halt to the Qush Tepa project. Abdul Haq Hamad, former head of media publications supervision, said in a televised debate that the Pakistani authorities had made it explicitly known at an official meeting with Taliban administration leaders that they must ‘stop operations on the Qush Tepa channel’.
« According to him, the Pakistani authorities are not satisfied with the completion of the Qosh Tepa Canal, as Afghanistan gains autonomy through this canal in managing its waters. »
Two days earlier, on November 7, Cédric Gras, Le Figaro‘s correspondent in Tashkent, published an article entitled:
« En Afghanistan, les Talibans creusent le canal de la discorde » (« In Afghanistan, the Taliban are digging the canal of discord »):
« The Afghanistan of the Taliban is in the process of digging a gigantic irrigation canal upstream from the Amou-Daria river. To the detriment of downstream countries and the Aral Sea, whose water supply and agricultural crops are threatened ».
Obviously, the aim is to create scare. But if the accusation is hasty, it touches on a fundamental issue that deserves explanation.
Endoreic basin
The Amu Daria, the 2539 km long river that the Greeks called the Oxus, and its brother, the 2212 km long Syr Daria, feed, or rather used to feed, the Aral Sea, which straddles the border between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. The water of both rivers were increasingly redirected by soviet experts to irrigate mainly cotton cultivation causing the Aral Sea to disappear.
I won’t go into detail here on the history of the ecological disaster that everyone has heard about but I am ready to answer your questions on that later;
The « Aral Sea Basin » essentially covers five Central Asian « stan » countries. To the North, these are Kazakhstan, followed by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
In fact, Afghanistan, whose border with the latter three countries is formed by sections of the Amu Darya, is geologically and geographically part of the « Aral Sea Basin ».
This is a so-called « endoreic basin ». (endo = inside; rhein = carried).
In Europe, we see falling rain and snowmelt flowing into rivers that discharge it into the sea. Not so in Central Asia. Rainwater, or water from melting snow, flows down mountain ranges. They eventually form rivers that either disappear under the sands, or form « inland seas » having no connection whatever to a larger sea and no outlet to the oceans. 18% of the world’s emerged surface is endoreic.
Among the best-known endoreic basins are the Dead Sea in Israel and Lake Chad in Africa.
In Asia, there are plenty of them. Just think of the Tarim Basin, the world’s largest endoreic river basin in Qinjiang, covering over 400,000 km². Then there’s the vast Caspian Sea, the Balkhach and Alakoll lakes in Kazakhstan, the Yssyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan and, as we’ve just said, the Aral Sea.
The very nature of an endoreic basin strongly reinforces the fear that water is a scarce limited source. That realty can either bolster the conviction that problems cannot but be solved true cooperation and discussion, or push countries to go to war one against the other. Democraphic growth, economic progress and climate/meteorogical chaos can worsen that perception and make water issues appear as a « time-bomb ».
The early Soviet planners started with a strict quota system laid down in 1987 by Protocol 566 of the Scientific and Technical Council of the Soviet Ministry of Water Resources. The system fixed quotas for all countries, both in percentage and in BCM (Billions of Cubic Meters).
That simple quota system looks 100 % functional on paper. However, nations are not abstractions.
First, this system created quite rigid procedures and even would forbid some upstream countries to invest in their own agriculture since they had to deliver the water to their neighbors.
Second, conflict arose about dissymetric seasonal use of the water. The use of the water was completely different between « Upstream countries » such as Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and « Downstream countries » such as Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
Upstream countries could accept releasing their water resources in autumn and winter since the release of the water provides them up to 90 % of their electricity via hydrodams.
Downstream countries however don’t need the water at that time but in spring and summer when their farmland needs to be irrigated.
However, in Central Asia, their seems to exist some sort of « geological justice » since downstream countries lacking water (Kazakhstan, Uzbekhistan and Turkmenistan) have vast hydrocarbon energy reserves such as coal, oil and gaz.
Therefore, not always stupid, Soviet planners, which realized that a simple quota system was insufficient to prevent conflict, created a compensation mechanism. Downstream nations, in exchange for water, would supply parts of their oil and gas to upstream nations to compensate the loss of potential energy that water represents.
However imperfect that mechanism, for want of a better one, it remained in place after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
It can be said that by appealing to an external factor of a given problem, in this case to bring energy in the equation to solve the water problem, soviet planners conceived in a rudimentary form what became known as the « Water, Energy, Food Nexus ». One cannot deal with theses factors as separate factors. They have to be conceived as part of a single, dynamic Monad.
Today, we should avoid the geopolitical trap. If we consider the water resources to be shared between the states of Central Asia and Afghanistan to be « limited », or even « declining » due to meteorological phenomena such as El Nino, we might hastily and geopolitically conclude that, with the construction of the Qosh Tepa canal, which will tap water from the Amu Daria, the « water time bomb » cannot but explode.
Solutions
So we need to be creative. We don’t have all the solutions but some ideas about where to find them:
- In Central Asia, especially in Turkmenistan but also Uzbekistan, huge quantities of water from the Abu Daria water basin are wasted. In 2021, Chinese researchers, looking at Central Asia’s potential in terms of food production, estimated that with improvements in irrigation, better seeds and other « agricultural technology », 56 % of the water can be saved farming the same crops, meaning that today, about half of the water is simply wasted.
- The lack of investment into new water infrastructure and maintenance cannot but lead to the kind of disasters the world has seen in Libya or Pakistan where, predictably, systems collapsed for lack of mere maintenance;
- Uncontrolled and controlled flooding are very primitive and inefficient forms of irrigation and should be outphased and replaced by modern irrigation techniques;
- Therefore, a water emergency should be declared and a vast international effort should assist all the countries of the Abu Daria basin, including Afghanistan, to modernize and improve the efficiency of their water infrastructure, be it lakes, canals, rivers and irrigation systems.
- Such and effort can best organized within the framework of the « One Belt, One Road » initiative and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. BRICS countries such as China, Russia and India could help Afghanistan with data from their satellites and space programs.
- By improving the efficiency of water use, notably through targeted irrigation using « drip irrigation » as seen in the case of the Tarim basin in Xinjiang, it is possible to reduce the total amount of water used to obtain an even higher yield of agriculture production, while considerably increasing the availability of the water to be shared among neighbors. The know how and experience of African, South American, Israeli and Chinese agronomists, specialized in food production in arid countries, can play a key role.
- In the near future, Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES), which means storing water in high altitude reservoirs for a later use, can massively increase the independance and autonomy of countries such as Afghanistan and others. Having sufficient water at hand at any time means also having the water security required to operate mining activities and handle thermal and nuclear electricity production units. PHES infrastructure would be greatly efficient on both sides of the Abu Daria and jointly operated among friendly nations.
Over the past 1,200 years, nations bordering waterways have concluded 3,600 treaties on the sharing of river usufructs, whether for fishing, river transport or the sharing of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses.
Afghanistan’s Qosh Tepa canal project is a laudable and legitimate initiative. But it is true that by breaking the status quo, it obliges a new dialogue among nations allowing each and all of them to rise to a higher level, a willing to live together increasingly the opposite to the dominant paradigm in the Anglosphere and its european followers.
It’s up to all of us to make sure it works out fine.
The science of Oases, from the Indus Valley to Persian qanats
Presentation of Karel Vereycken at the first panel discussion of the « Water for Peace » seminar organized by the Schiller Institute on January 9, 2024 in Paris.
While the dog was domesticated as early as 15,000 years BC, we associate the first human activities aimed at managing water with the Neolithic period, which began around 10,000 BC.
It is thought to be the moment at which mankind moved from a « tribal subsistence economy of hunter-gatherers » to agriculture and animal husbandry, giving rise to villages and cities, where pottery, weaving, metallurgy and the arts would start blooming.
Key to this, the domestication of animals. The goat was domesticated around 11,000 BC, the cow around 9,000 BC, the sheep around -8,000 BC, and finally the horse around 2,200 BC in the steppes of Ukraine.
The oldest archaeological sites showing agricultural activities and irrigation techniques were discovered in the Indus Valley and the « Fertile Crescent ».
The site of Mehrgarh, in the Indus Valley, now Pakistan Balochistan, discovered in 1974 by François and Cathérine Jarrige, two French archaeologists, demonstrates important agricultural practices from 7000 BC onward.
Cotton, wheat and barley were grown, and beer was brewed. Cattle, sheep and goats were raised. But Mehrgarh was much more than that.
Contradicting the linear « developmental » schema, since we’re in the middle of the Neolithic, Mehrgarh is also home to the oldest pottery in South Asia and, above all, to the “Mehrgahr amulet”, the oldest bronze object casted with the « lost-wax » method.
The first seals made of terracotta or bone and decorated with geometric motifs were found here.
On the technological side, tiny bow drills were used, possibly for dental treatment, as evidenced by the pierced teeth of some skeletons found on site.
At the same time, or shortly afterwards, around 6000 B.C., Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, witnessed rapid urban development in terms of demographics, institutions, agriculture, techniques and trade.
A veritable « fertile crescent » emerged in the region stretching from Sumer to Egypt, passing through the whole of Mesopotamia and the Levant, i.e. Syria and the Jordan Valley.
Irrigation
Whether in the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia or Egypt, the earliest irrigation techniques are nothing but retaining as much water as possible when Mother Nature has the sweet kindness to offer it to mankind.
Rainwater was collected in cisterns and, as much as possible, when snowmelt or monsoon rains swell the rivers, the objective was to amplify and steer seasonal « flooding » by canals and trenches carrying the water as far away as possible to areas to be cultivated, while at the same time protecting crops.
In Egypt, for example, where the Nile rises by around 8 meters, the water brings not only moisture but also silt to the soil near the river, providing crops with the nutrients they need to grow and thus maintain the soil’s fertility.
While the Egyptians complained about the harsh labor condition of their farmers, for the Greek historian Herodotus, this was the place in the world where work was least arduous. Of Egypt he says:
“Its soil is black and crumbly, made of silt and alluvium brought from Ethiopia by the river. Certainly, these people are today, of all the human race in Egypt as elsewhere, those who go to the least trouble to obtain their crops.
« They don’t bother to plough and weed. When the river has come of its own accord to water their fields and, its task done, has withdrawn, each man sows his land and lets the pigs loose: by trampling, the beasts sink the seeds into the earth, and the man has only to wait for the harvest.”
In Mehrgarh, where agriculture was born from 7000 BC, the work was indeed far more demanding.
However, the drainage system around the village and the rudimentary dams to control water-logging indicate that the inhabitants understood most of the basic principles involved. The cultivation of cotton, wheat and barley, as well as the domestication of animals, show that they were also familiar with canals and irrigation systems.
Constantly refined, this know-how enabled the civilization of the Indus Valley to create great cities that impress us by their modernity, notably Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, a city of 40,000 inhabitants with a public bath in its center, not a palace.
Pioneers of modern hygiene, these towns were equipped with small containers where residents could deposit their household waste.
Anticipating our « all-to-the-sewer » systems imagined in the early XVIth century by Leonardo da Vinci, for example in his plans for the new french capital of Romorantin, many towns had public water supplies as well as an ingenious sewage system.
In the port city of Lothal (now India), for example, many homes had private brick bathrooms and latrines. Wastewater was evacuated via a communal sewage system leading either to a canal in the port, or to a soaking pit outside the city walls, or to buried urns equipped with a hole for the evacuation of liquids, which were regularly emptied and cleaned.
Excavations at the Mohenjo Daro site reveal the existence of no fewer than 700 brick wells, houses equipped with bathrooms and individual and collective latrines.
Many of the city’s buildings had two floors or more. Water trickled down from cisterns installed on the roofs was channeled through closed clay pipes or open gutters that emptied into the covered sewers beneath the street.
This hydraulic and sanitary know-how was passed on to the civilization of Crete, the mother of Greece, before being implemented on a large scale by the Romans.
It was forgotten with the collapse of the Roman Empire, only to return during the Renaissance.
The first human contributions were aimed at maximizing water reservoirs and their gravity-flow capacity. To achieve this, it was necessary to transfer water from a lower level to higher ground and build « water towers ».
To this end, the Mesopotamian « chadouf » was widely used in Egypt, followed by the « Archimedean screw ».
Next came the « saquia » or « Persian wheel », a geared wheel driven by animal power, and finally the « noria », the best-known water-drawing machine, powered by the river itself.
Persian qanats
Before Alexander the Great, Persia’s Achaemenid Empire (6th century BC) developed the technique of underground qanats or underground aqueducts. This « draining gallery” cut into the rock or built by man, is one of the most ingenious inventions for irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions.
Whatever displeases our environmentalist friends, it’s not nature that magically produces « oases » in the desert.
It’s a scientific man who digs a drainage gallery from a water table close enough to the ground surface, or sometimes from an aquifer that flows into the desert.
On the website of ArchéOrient, archaeologist Rémy Boucharlat, Director of Emeritus Research at the French CNRS, an expert on Iran, explains:
« Whatever the origin of the water, deep or shallow, the gallery construction technique is the same. The first step is to identify the presence of the water, either its underflow near a river, or the presence of a deeper water table on a foothill, which requires the science and experience of specialists.
A motherwell reaches the upper part of this layer or water table, which indicates the depth at which the gallery should be dug. The slope of the gallery must be very shallow, less than 2‰, to ensure a calm and regular flow of water, and to gradually lead the water to the surface, at a gradient much lower than the slope of the piedmont.
The gallery is then excavated, not from the mother well, as it would be flooded immediately, but from downstream, from the arrival point. The pipe is first dug as an open trench, then covered, and finally gradually tunnelled into the ground.
Shafts are dug from the surface at regular intervals, between 5 and 30 m depending on the nature of the terrain, to evacuate soil and provide ventilation during excavation, and to mark the direction of the tunnel.”
Historically, the majority of the populations of Iran and other arid regions of Asia and North Africa depended on the water supplied by qanats; settlement areas thus corresponded to the places where their construction was possible.
The technique offers a significant advantage: as the water moves through an underground conduit, not a drop of water is lost through evaporation.
This technique spread throughout the world under various names: qanat and kareez in Iran, Syria and Egypt, kariz, kehriz in Pakistan and Afghanistan, aflaj in Oman, galeria in Spain, kahn in Balochistan, kanerjing in China, foggara in North Africa, khettara in Morocco, ngruttati in Sicily, bottini in Siena, etc.).
Improved by the Greeks and amplified by the Etruscans and the Romans, the qanats technique was carried by the Spaniards across the Atlantic to the New World, where numerous underground canals of this type still operate in Peru, Chile and western Mexico.
After Alexander the Great, Bactria, covering parts of today’s Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and the northern part of Afghanistan, was even known as the « Oasis civilization » or the “Land of a 1000 Golden Cities”.
Iran boasts it had the highest number of qanats in the world, with approximately 50,000 qanats covering a total length of 360,000 km, about 9 times the circumference of the Earth !
Thousands of them are still operational but increasingly destabilized by erratic well digging and demographic overconcentration.
Shared responsability
In 1017, the Baghdad-based hydrologist Mohammed Al-Karaji provided a detailed description of qanat construction and maintenance techniques, as well as legal considerations about the collective management of wells and pipes.
While each qanat is designed and supervised by a mirab (dowser-hydrologist and discoverer), building a qanat is a collective task that takes several months or years for a village or group of villages. The absolute necessity of collective investment in the infrastructure and its maintenance calls for a superior notion of the common good, an indispensable complement to the notion of private property that rains and rivers are not accustomed to respecting.
In North Africa, the management of water distributed by a khettara (the local name for qanâts) is governed by traditional distribution norms known as « water rights ».
Originally, the volume of water granted per user was proportional to the work involved in building the khettara, and translated into an irrigation period during which the beneficiary could use all the khettara’s flow for his or her fields. Even today, when the khettara has not dried up, this rule of water rights still applies, and a share can be bought or sold. The size of each family’s fields to be irrigated must also be taken into account
All of this demonstrates that good cooperation between man and nature can do miracles if man decides so.
Thank you for your attention and questions welcome!
Grands travaux : l’exemple inspirant du « Plan Freycinet »
En 1878, le ministre des travaux publics, l’ingénieur et polytechnicien Charles de Freycinet (1828-1923), proche de Léon Gambetta, lance un ambitieux programme de travaux publics.
Il comprenait principalement le parachèvement des voies ferrées, mais aussi la construction de canaux et d’installations portuaires, l’ensemble conçu comme un tout intégré où chaque partie apporte sa contribution.
L’analyse de Charles de Freycinet sur les buts de la science économique est limpide et se résume en une phrase : « Le progrès économique, c’est la plus grande satisfaction pour le moindre effort. »
Si l’objectif phare est de donner accès au chemin de fer à tous les Français, il s’agit de favoriser le développement économique du pays par le désenclavement des régions reculées.
Les promoteurs du plan veulent également aboutir à un contrôle plus strict de l’État voire au rachat des compagnies de chemins de fer.
L’analyse de Freycinet sur les buts de la science économique n’est pas sans rappeler la pensée du philosophe et scientifique allemand Leibniz :
« La science économique étant l’étude des causes qui concourent à la satisfaction des besoins matériels de l’homme, le progrès économique peut se résumer d’un mot: c’est la plus grande satisfaction pour le moindre effort. En d’autres termes, il consiste dans l’accroissement continu de la production pour une somme de travail déterminée.
Ainsi, rendre son effort de plus en plus efficace, de plus en plus fécond, tel est le véritable problème pour l’économie. Telle est la voie qui le conduit à l’affranchissement dont nous parlions et qui permet d’entrevoir cette vie idéale, de xxx et de lumières, qui est à la fois la plus noble des jouissances et l’accomplissement du plus impérieux des devoirs.
« On remarquera en quoi le progrès économique, tel que nous le comprenons, diffère de l’idée qui généralement a cours. On considère assez souvent comme étant un progrès une société dans laquelle la richesse augmente. Pour nous, ce signe extérieur ne suffit pas… ».
(Page 1 de son projet de livre Le Progrès économique de 1887, manuscrit jamais publié)
Pour sa mise en œuvre, le « plan Freycinet » est inscrit dans la loi de Finances et une première loi est votée le 18 mai 1878.
Ensuite, il fait l’objet de trois lois promulguées par Jules Grévy, président de la République, à quelques jours d’intervalle:
1. Nouvelles lignes ferroviaires nationales et secondaires
La première concerne la construction de 8700 kilomètres de nouvelles voies ferroviaires soit 154 lignes dites d’intérêt général (avec un écartement des voies d’1m43) afin de desservir toutes les sous-préfectures du pays.
Leur construction est assurée, soit par les grandes compagnies privées, le coût étant le plus souvent pris en charge par l’État, soit par l’État lui-même. Freycinet est ainsi à l’origine de la compagnie de l’État (loi du 18 mai 1878).
Dans le même temps il s’agit de désenclaver tous les chefs lieux de cantons par des réseaux secondaires (lignes dites « d’intérêt local » avec un écartement des voies d’1 m) construites principalement à l’initiative des conseils généraux.
La longueur des ces réseaux départementaux passera de 2187 kilomètres en 1880 à 17 653 km en 1913.
2. L’aménagement du réseau fluvial
Dans le domaine de la navigation fluviale le plan Freycinet ambitionne la création d’un réseau national unifié et cohérent de voies navigables, par l’amélioration de 14 600 km de voies existantes et par la mise en service de 1900 km de canaux supplémentaires.
Le plan Freycinet porte les dimensions des écluses à 39 m de long pour 5,20 m de large, afin qu’elles soient franchissables par des péniches de 300 à 350 tonnes.
En conséquence, les bateaux au gabarit Freycinet ne doivent pas dépasser 38,5 m sur 5,05 m.
Le « gabarit Freycinet » correspond aujourd’hui au gabarit européen de classe I.
En France, 5800 km de voies fluviales ont conservés cette taille et en 2011, 23 % du trafic fluvial y transite.
3. La modernisation des ports
Au niveau portuaire, Freycinet déplore que :
« Les crédits accordés pour ces travaux [la modernisation des ports] n’aient jamais été à la hauteur des besoins et tandis que les Anglais, les Hollandais, les Belges dépensaient sous nos yeux des centaines de millions pour créer ou transformer leurs magnifiques établissements de Liverpool, de Glasgow, d’Amsterdam ou d’Anvers, nous restions toujours fort loin en arrière. »
L’originalité du plan Freycinet, au niveau portuaire, recouvre trois aspects :
–le souci de l’interconnexion,
–l’étendue et
–le mode de financement.
La modernisation des ports, affirme-t-il :
« est imposée par la transformation du matériel naval, par le développement incessant des chemins de fer et des autres voies de communication, par les besoins de célérité et de régularité qui s’introduisent chaque jour davantage dans les habitudes du commerce et de l’industrie. »
Freycinet, qui avait bien conscience que la bataille pour le maritime se gagne sur terre ferme. Un port sans hinterland capable d’accueillir les flux de marchandises est comme un cœur déconnecté d’artères en mesure de faire circuler le sang.
Freycinet mettra donc l’accent sur l’amélioration de l’intermodalité, ce qui signifie l’extension des quais, la multiplication des bassins, notamment à flot, l’approfondissement des chenaux, afin que « l’installation générale soit appropriée à la fois aux deux modes de transport qui viennent s’y rencontrer ».
Alors que l’État financera les superstructures, les infrastructures, l’outillage sera à la charge des chambres de commerce ou des particuliers par voie de concession. 116 ports sur 188 sont ainsi modernisés.
–La longueur utile des quais passe de 140 km en 1879 à 205 km en 1900, une augmentation de 46 % ;
–le nombre de ports présentant plus de 7 mètres de profondeur s’est élevé de 9 en 1878 à 15 en 1900 ;
–le tonnage de jauge de navires entrés et sortis a progressé de 64 % entre 1878 et 1898 ;
–aux mêmes dates, le poids des marchandises importées ou exportées a augmenté de 75 %, passant de 17 à 30 millions de tonnes.
L’abaissement du prix du fret, l’accroissement de la rapidité et de la régularité des transports, le perfectionnement des moyens de manutention sont autant de progrès à enregistrer.
Un plan décennal
Dans son chiffrage initial, largement dépassé au final, le plan prévoyait de consacrer environ 3 milliards de francs aux lignes de chemin de fer, 1 milliard aux canaux et 500 millions aux ports. Le tout était financé par un crédit d’État à 3 %, remboursable en 75 annuités.
Si à l’origine, le « plan Freycinet » aurait du être réalisé en dix ans, la faillite retentissante de la banque l’Union générale en 1882 (cadre du roman L’Argent de Zola) et la crise économique qu’elle engendrera, retarderont sa mise en œuvre.
La crise du crédit public brise l’élan et entraîne à moyen terme le ralentissement considérable du rythme des réalisations. Cet arrêt brutal aura deux conséquences.
D’une part, l’allongement des délais de construction provoque une élévation de leurs coûts, et de l’autre, l’abandon prématuré du système de financement imaginé par la loi du 11 juin 1878.
Ainsi, ce n’est qu’en 1914, c’est-à-dire après 36 ans, que l’ensemble du plan arrivera, à quelques détails près, à son stade de réalisation.
Entre-temps, cette mobilisation des forces productives, par effet d’entrainement, à fait naître le savoir-faire permettant la réalisation de la tour Eiffel ou les écluses du canal de Suez et celui de Panama.
Faute de crédit productif public et de volonté politique réelle, à part quelques miracles accomplis à l’époque De Gaulle/Pompidou, la France n’a jamais connue une initiative de cette ampleur visant à susciter un « choc de productivité » par l’investissement en infrastructures. Quel candidat aura aujourd’hui le courage et la compétence pour défendre un « Nouveau plan Freycinet » ?
Relance française
Le 1er octobre 2020, dans sa chronique dans Le Monde, Pierre-Cyrille Hautcoeur, professeur à PSE, directeur d’études EHESS, confirme la réussite retentissante du Plan Freycinet.
Extrait:
« Que ce soit sous l’effet direct du plan Freycinet ou d’un regain plus large d’optimisme, le PNB croît de 20 % de 1879 à 1882, l’investissement de près de 40 %, indiquent Maurice Lévy-Leboyer et François Bourguignon dans La Croissance française au XIXe siècle (Economica, 1985).
« Cette reprise rapide s’accompagne d’une flambée d’opérations financières, notamment autour du grand emprunt d’Etat lancé en 1881 pour financer le plan. Elle est stoppée net par le krach de 1882, auquel une partie des banques nouvellement créées ne résiste pas. Si le marasme reprend, le plan Freycinet n’en est pas moins poursuivi, et quasi achevé avant 1914.«
Gain de population
« Mal aimé par certains, qui y voient – avec un brin d’anachronisme – l’origine étatique du développement excessif d’une technologie révolue et peu profitable, ainsi qu’une hausse irresponsable de la dette publique (les 6 milliards du plan représentent 30 % du PNB de 1879), le plan Freycinet n’empêche pourtant pas l’industrie automobile française d’être l’une des plus innovatrices au monde, ni la croissance française d’être particulièrement élevée de 1895 à 1914.
« Il a, en outre, atteint nombre de ses objectifs : le renforcement durable du BTP et de la métallurgie, et le développement, désormais piloté par l’Etat, d’un système national de chemins de fer qui contribue à l’intégration économique et sociale du territoire. Les 964 communes – notamment toutes les sous-préfectures et beaucoup de chefs-lieux – connectées au réseau grâce au plan Freycinet gagnent en population par rapport aux autres villes dans les décennies qui suivent ; les départements les plus concernés y gagnent aussi en revenu relatif. Ce désenclavement progressif des campagnes traduit dans les faits, parallèlement à la diffusion des écoles et bureaux de poste, la promesse d’égalité de la République, et lui rallie durablement les populations. »