Étiquette : Karel
Debunking Renaissance Fakenews — Part I: Fake Platonist Marsilio Ficino

by Karel Vereycken, august 2026
This article is the first of a three-part series:
I. Fake Platonist Marsilio Ficino and his Florentine “Platonic Academy” (below)
II. The Medici dynasty and Cosimo de’ Medici’s (coming)
III. Georgios Gemistos Plethon, his life and ambitions (coming)
As it is well known, I’m a passionate researcher and admirer of what goes under the label of “Renaissance.” I’ve researched quite extensively and over many years, creative artists such as Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Brunelleschi, Donatello, Piero della Francesca, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.
This summer, I read Alma Palmer‘s inspiring book “Inventing the Renaissance, Myths of the Golden Age.” 1 That title is in reality a wake-up call. Yes, there was a splendid unprecedented explosion of Greek and Latin studies combined with painting, sculpture and architecture invented by idealistic humanists that anybody visiting Italy, and Florence more particularly, can admire.

However there are also powerful myths invented (created out of hot air) by powerful factions of the oligarchy out to claim their own legitimacy (it was all me) and play down that of others.
As a starter, let’s examine the very common narrative about the Greek philosopher Georgios Gemistos, who added the name “Plethon” (Plato) to his own name, who traveled in 1438, at the age of at least seventy-eight, to the Council of Ferrara–Florence, the ecumenical gathering that sought to heal the schism between the Orthodox and Latin churches. Plethon, it goes, brought with him the full works of Plato and inspired Cosimo de’ Medici to set up a “Platonic Academy” and have Plato’s works made available to the West.
“This is clearly one of those stories too good to be examined closely, and it has been repeated by nearly every scholar who has written on Florentine culture or Renaissance Platonism,” writes James Hankins who spent years trying to document the case. 2
Here is a rough sketch of the various points of the official narrative followed by my remarks and interrogations:
1) In 1438-39, at the Council of Florence, Cosimo de’ Medici made acquaintance with the “Neoplatonic” philosopher George Gemistos Plethon.

Conclusive proof lacking. The sole and unique source of information for this supposed encounter of 1438-39 is Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499), the son of Cosimo’s physician. Ficino was not an eyewitness to the event. He was born in 1433 and was 5 years old when the Council of Florence started and reports on it only twice, the first time 24 years and the second time 52 years later. Admittedly, he could have gotten the story from his father, who was Cosimo’s medical doctor.
Complicating such an encounter would have arisen from the fact that Plethon spoke nothing but Greek, while Cosimo had zero command over Greek and very poor command over Latin. Cosimo, while reportedly admiring ancient Greek knowledge, never wrote poetry, orations or treatises. The only surviving letters are in Italian.
To understand Plethon, Cosimo would have required a good translator on top of Platonic and Neo-Platonic philosophy. But Bessarion, Plethon’s erudite pupil, was organizing, directing and managing on a day to day basis, together with Traversari and Cusa, the Ecumenical council.
Other than Ficino, not one single source of that period, even among the most ardent defenders and lackey’s of the Medicis, praises or even mentions Cosimo’s encounter with Plethon and his supposed plan to set up a Platonic Academy. Even Bessarion doesn’t spent a line on the subject.
The only rhetorical hints to a supposed encounter between Cosimo and Plethon, as well as his project to create a Platonic Academy appear in two writings of Ficino:
- 24 years after the Council of Florence in a letter to Cosimo de’ Medici written in September 1462;
- 52 years after the Council of Florence in Ficino’s preface to 1490 translation of the Enneads, the main work of the (evil neo-Platonic) Plotinus (who Roman Emperor Julien the Apostate tried to impose as a state religion at the end of the Roman Empire as an alternative to Christianity). The aim of that preface, was to please Cosimo’s grandson, Lorenzo the magnificent (1449-1492), and beg him to continue financing Ficino and his translations of Plotinus, which according to the latter, was nearly as ardently requested by Cosimo as that of the works of Plato.
Here is the critical passage of Ficino’s 1490 introduction to Plotinus’ Enneads :

“The Great Cosimo, the Father of his Country by senatorial decree, at the time when a council was being negotiated among the Greeks and Latins in Florence under Eugene IV [1438], frequently heard a Greek philosopher by the name of Gemistus Plethon disputing like another Plato on the Platonic mysteries. From his fervid lips Cosimo was straightway so inspirited, so ensouled, that from that time forth he conceived deep in his mind a kind of Academy, to give birth to it at the first opportune moment. Then, while that great Medici was intending in some sense to give birth to the great thing he had conceived, he destined me, the son of his favorite doctor Ficino, while still a boy, to [undertake] the labor, educating me from that day forth to this very thing.”
“Moreover, he labored that I should not only have all the books of Plato in Greek, but also the books of Plotinus. After this, in the year 1463, in the thirtieth year of my life, he commissioned me to translate, first, Thrice-Great Hermes, and thereafter Plato. Mercury I finished in a few months while Cosimo was still alive; Plato I had also begun at that time [1463]. Although he was also eager for Plotinus, he said nothing to me about translating it, lest he should appear to be weighing me down with too great a burden all at once. Such was the great man’s clemency to his own, such was his modesty towards all. Thus, I never thought, either in the manner of an inspired poet or in my own person, to approach Plotinus. But in the meantime Cosimo at length expressed-or rather impressed from on high-that which he had kept silent about while living on the earth.”
“At the moment when I was giving Plato to the Latin world to read, Cosimo’s heroic soul incited the heroic mind of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola in some unknown way-Pico himself almost did not know how-to come to Florence. Pico, born in the very year [1463] I was starting on Plato, and coming to Florence the same day-almost the same hour-I was publishing him, after greeting me asked me immediately about Plato. To him I said, ‘Our Plato has today emerged onto our thresholds.’ Then he heartily congratulated [me] on this, and straightway-and neither I nor he knows whence the words came-he led, or rather impelled me to translate Plotinus. Surely a divine cause brought it to pass that the hero Pico should be born while Plato was being, as it were, reborn-Saturn being then in the house of Aquarius as it was when I was born thirty years previously-and that he should come to Florence on the very day our Plato was published, and that he should inspire me in a marvelous fashion with Cosimo’s vow about Plotinus which had been quite hidden from me, but which was revealed by heavenly means to him.” 3
What is a proven fact is that Plethon (c. 1355-1452) did meet with Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444), the chancellor of Florence at that time, who had translated himself several Greek manuscripts including Aristotle and Plato. Leonardo Bruni’s translations of the Phaedo, Apology, Crito, and Phaedrus were made only shortly before Gemistos visit. Bruni had studied Greek under the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (1350-1415) who had been invited to teach Greek in Florence by Coluccio Salutati (1341-1406), a friend and admirer of Petrarch (1304-1374) and Boccaccio (1313-1375).
Thanks to Chrysoloras’ activity a number of new Latin of Platonic writings began to appear under the name of his students, Bruni, Umberto Decembrio, and Cencio de’ Rustici, who translated between them ten Platonic dialogues, including the Gorgias, Crito, Apology, Phaedo and the Republic.
According to historian N.G. Wilson, Plethon, during his stay in Florence acquainted the Italian geographer Paolo Toscanelli (1397-1482) with the extensive travels, writings and mapping of the Greek geographer Strabo (1st century BC/AD), hitherto unknown in Italy but crucial for elaborating his famous map that later fell in the hands of Columbus. What is known is that Strabo’s works became an integral part of Bessarion’s library.
2) At the invitation of his humanist friends, including Cosimo, Plethon engaged in private lectures explaining the difference between Plato and Aristotle, arguing that Plato was far more compatible with Christian doctrine.
Conclusive proof lacking. During the Council, Gemistos found that he had free time because much of the counciliar discussion concerned theological minutiae that did not require the presence of a secular sage. Even if Ficino claims Cosimo assisted “frequently” at Plethon’s lectures, there is close to zero evidence they ever took place. What is known is that Plethon wrote a treaty on the difference between Aristotle and Plato, commonly known as De Differentiis. A decade later, Plethon described the circumstances in which he composed his book without ever mentioning it was a follow-up to his lectures:
“That work was not composed as a result of thorough research . . . but at a time when I had been indisposed at Florence and was unable for several days to go out of the house where I was staying; perhaps, too, because I was bored, and was trying at one and the same time to relieve my boredom and to do a favor to those who were interested in Plato. Thus I wrote that work in the briefest form…” 4
C. M. Woodhouse, author of the 416 pages book “George Gemistos Plethon, The Last of the Hellenes” (1986) 5 writes that most claims about this event should be considered as pure speculation. For him:
“The impact of Plethons lectures on the Italians remains hard to assess. Very few of them left any record of their impressions; none of them is more than superficial and secondhand. The case of Cosimo de’ Medici, recorded by Ficino, is the only major exception; an additional but minor one is Grigorio Tifernate. Although De Differentiis was written for the benefit of Italian humanists,‘ none can be named who read it in Plethons life-time. But there is a strong tradition that Plethon impressed many westerners by his personality and learning.” 6
3) Plethon brought with him to Florence a manuscript with all of Plato’s works
Yes. Plethon carried with him many Greek manuscripts. They included the entire works of Plato but also those of the (toxic neoplatonists) Plotinus and Porphyry as well as the Chaldean Oracles (more on that in Part III).
4) Captivated, Cosimo bought the Plato manuscripts from Plethon
No. There is no proof Cosimo was given or bought these manuscripts from Plethon. The latter took many books back with him to Mystras, Greece, after having allowed scribes in Florence to copy them. His most famous student, Cardinal Bessarion, later collected Plethon’s original autographs and manuscripts. Bessarion, not trusting Medici rule over Florence and demanding very precise conditions for conservation, donated his vast collection to the Republic of Venice, forming the foundation of the famous Biblioteca Marciana.
5) Cosimo gave manuscripts of Plato’s works to Marsilio Ficino to have them translated into Latin

Yes, but. 24 years after the Council of Florence, in 1462, Cosimo, seeing his life coming to an end, supplied the 29 years old Ficino with various Greek manuscripts of Plato’s work, whereupon Ficino started translating the entire corpus into Latin. The draft translation of the entire set of dialogues was finished six to seven years later, around 1468–69. In December 1473, Ficino, age 40, is ordained a priest and gave priority to writing and getting printed his own writings, among which the Platonic Theology and On the Christian Religion.
Plato had to wait and Ficino’s translation of the Complete Works of Plato (Platonis Opera Omnia), thirty-six in all, will only be printed in Florence in 1484 –46 years after the Council of Florence– by the press of the Dominican monastery of San Jacopo di Ripoli, the first printshop to employ women (Dominican nuns) as typesetters. The cost of printing 1,025 copies was not financed by Lorenzo de’ Medici (who passed away in 1492) to whom the translation was dedicated, but by two prominent Florentine patrons and humanists: Filippe Valori and Francesco Berlinghieri. Once produced, Lorenzo did circulate the books in which he appeared prominently. A much-improved second edition was printed in Venice in 1491 by Bernardinus de Choris de Cremona and Simon de Luere for Andreas Torresanus de Asula.
Since the Medici’s wanted to keep the spread of ideas under their control. Therefore they favored handmade codices crafted by professional scribes over mass-produced print. At that time, the price of a manuscript varied wildly—from a few florins for a simple, unadorned text to hundreds of florins or the equivalent of several months to years of wages for an elaborately illuminated luxury volume. With that Medici policy, Florence, the epicenter of the Renaissance, ended up as being one of the last ones in Italy to have modern printing shops !
Paul Oskar Kristeller, who spend years researching on Ficino, gives the following account about why the entire process took so many years:
“Marsilio Ficino, born in 1433, did not begin to learn Greek until 1456 (at age 23 years) and we have no specific information on the content and progress of his studies during the following years. We have a number of Greek manuscripts owned and annotated by Ficino, and a number of translations from the Greek surely or probably made by him, and some of them may belong to this early period, but none of them is dated. At the time when Cosimo de’ Medici gave Ficino a house in Careggi which the latter chose to call his Academy, in September, 1462, he celebrated the event with the translation of an Orphic hymn.” 7
Kristeller confirms that Cosimo asked Ficino to put on hold his translations of Plato, and translate first the writings of Hermes Trismegistus:
“In April, 1463, Ficino completed his translation of the Corpus Hermeticum, after having spent only a few months on it. We know from Ficino’s own words that he began his translation of Plato at that time, after having finished the version of the Hermetica, that he did so at the request of Cosimo de’ Medici, and that he had at his disposal, since 1462, two Greek manuscripts of Plato, a complete one which belonged to Cosimo, and a partial one owned by Amerigo Benci. » 8
As suggested by Kristeller in this paragraph, at the demand of Cosimo, Ficino translated first a collection of Hellenistic Greek documents brought to Pistoia in 1460 by Leonardo da Pistoia later called Hermetica (texts attributed to the legendary Hellenistic figure Hermes Trismegistus). Later, Ficino will also translate the writings of many of the (toxic) Neoplatonists, including Porphyry, Iamblichus, and especially Plotinus.
When Cosimo died on August 1, 1464, Ficino had translated ten Platonic dialogues, nine of them before January 11, and by April 1, 1466, twenty-three dialogues were ready.
After that date, we have no specific information on the progress of the translation, but it is probable that Ficino had completed the first draft of the entire work by 1468 or 1469. However, he wanted to subject the translation to a thorough revision, and hence refused to have it circulate.
Occupied with his Platonic Theology and several other writings, Ficino did not attend to the revision of his Plato translation for several years. He probably began to revise it around 1477, and had finished the revision in 1482 when he allowed it to be copied for others.
In 1483, Ficino sent the entire translation to the printer, apparently after having revised it once more, and finally the first printed edition of Plato appeared in October 1484. Although it had been carefully seen through the press by Ficino, it was necessary to append to it a long list of corrections.
The second edition, printed in Venice 1491, was not supervised by Ficino, but inserted the corrections in the text and hence is considered more accurate. From these two early editions all later ones are derived, although they may have been altered by some of the editors.” 9
The story goes that while other companions at Cosimo’s sickbed read Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics (with humanist commentaries) during his prolonged illness, Ficino read some of his newly made Latin translations of Plato’s works to comfort and entertain Cosimo in his final hours. But Cosimo’s Latin, as said before, was poor.
6) Plato’s works were largely unknown till then in the West.
Yes and No. Ficino was far from being the first translator of Platonic dialogues, he rather represents the culminating point of translation activity during the fifteenth century. The Greek text has come down to us in a number of manuscripts, and it was printed for the first time by Aldus Manutius in Venice in 1513.
Before the Renaissance, the Western world was very limited in its access to Plato’s writings. It inherited from Roman antiquity only two partial renderings of the Timaeus made by Cicero and Calcidius, and a number of shorter testimonia in Cicero’s philosophical writings, St. Augustine, and other works of Latin philosophy. During the 12th and 13th centuries, when most works of Aristotle were translated into Latin, the reader acquired only the nearly unintelligible versions of the Phaedo and the Meno, translated by Henricus Aristippus, and a partial version of the Parmenides, translated with Proclus’ commentary by William of Moerbeke. This was all that a Latin student was able to read of Plato up to about 1400, including Petrarch, who owned sixteen Greek manuscripts of Plato that reached the West in modern times, but who was not able to read them.
7) Cosimo asked Ficino to set up a “Platonic Academy”
Conclusive proof lacking. Historian James Hankins is very skeptical about that:
“We may begin by pointing out the general implausibility of the thesis that Cosimo ever founded or wanted to found a new Platonic Academy. It is striking, in the first place, that in none of the numerous works in laudem Cosmi written by humanists during the last decade of his life and after his death is Cosimo ever praised for having re-founded the Platonic Academy in Florence. A volume of ricordanze about Cosimo put together by his son Piero, for instance, though it includes dozens of consolatory letters from various princes, prelates, humanists and fellow citizens praising Cosimo’s magnificence, does not mention even once his project to re-found the Platonic Academy or his collations with Pletho.
Even the letter of Cardinal Bessarion, Plethons student, does not mention the creation of the new Academy. At least four of the poets commonly identified as members of the Florentine Academy wrote poems in praise of Cosimo-indeed, Amerigo Corsini wrote an epic poem in three books of which the third was devoted to praising Cosimo’s cultural patronage-but none of these poets mentions his founding of a Florentine Academy.” 10
Another way to understand Ficino and his « academy » is to examine the various ways he uses the word “academy” and its variants. What one finds is that Plato’s dialogues themselves could be referred to as an “academy,” rich with precious teachings as they were. An “academy” could be a private school organized to teach youths, though not necessarily located in one specific place or devoted to one doctrinal tradition. And the word “academy” could refer to regular meetings of literary men. Ficino’s “academy” seems to have been more associated with the first two meanings of the word. Rather than leading a regular gathering in a specific place, Ficino preferred to teach Florence’s elite youth when he could and, as a Socratic, philosophical friend, to try to draw out of his associates the better part of their natures in conversation.
8) For that purpose, Cosimo offered funding and a part of his private villa in Carregi close to Florence

Unclear. Cosimo in 1463 gave Ficino a small property in Careggi with a domicile (“cum domo pro laboratore et hoste et terris laboratis,”) as the document in the State Archive of Florence puts it. There is also a letter from Ficino to Cosimo from September of 1462, in which Ficino writes: “spiritedly do I devote myself to the Academy you arranged for us on the estate in Careggi, as if I worship rightly at a kind of shrine of contemplation”
These two sources allow the inference that, while the specific gift of property did not occur until 1463, Ficino and his cohort met at least once on Medici property in the hills outside Florence. There is another document, again from 1462, which shows that he received a house in the city of Florence as a gift from Cosimo, which was then rented out, so that Ficino received the income from the rent.
9) The activities of Ficino’s “Platonic Academy” promoted Platonism in the West and kicked of the Renaissance.
Not by intention. The fact that the arrival of real Platonic ideas were a key incentive in the birth of the Renaissance, is indisputable. But the Renaissance started three generations BEFORE Ficino publishing his translations. The reason that the Plethon/Cosimo/Ficino narrative became dominant is because the Medici family compound, by history books and intense propaganda called their fake claim pretending that THEY were the fathers, mothers, sons, daughters and authors of the Renaissance.
In reality, what the Medici mafia wants us to forget is the fact that Plato and Classical Greek wisdom were injected in Italy and Europe by Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio and their immediate followers Salutati, Bruni, Traversari and Nicholas of Cusa. It were the latter who motivated and paid the main collectors of Greek manuscripts, mostly over the entire period leading up to the Council of Florence:
- Manuel Chrysoloras (1350-1415), a greek scholar, humanist, philosopher and translator of ancient Greek texts. Serving as the ambassador for the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, he became a renowned teacher of Greek literature and history in Florence and Venice. In 1396, Coluccio Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence invited Chrysoloras to teach Greek grammar and literature. In a letter to Poggio Bracciolini, quoting the Roman lawyer and statesman Cicero, Salutati wrote: « The verdict of our own Cicero confirms that we Romans either made wiser innovations than theirs by ourselves or improved on what we took from them, but of course, as he himself says elsewhere with reference to his own day: « Italy is invincible in war, Greece in culture. » For our part, and we mean no offence, we firmly believe that both Greeks and Latins have always taken learning to a higher level by extending it to each other’s literature
- Guarino da Verona (1374-1460), a student of Chrysoloras who spent years studying in Constantinople and returned to Italy with numerous Greek codexes, founding a major educational system based on classical Greek and Latin learning.
- Niccolò Niccoli (1364-1437): Niccoli rarely left Florence. Instead, he stayed behind to fund Poggio’s expeditions, receive the recovered texts, and painstakingly transcribe them into his beautiful, efficient handwriting—a style that directly invented modern Italic script. Noteworthy is the fact that when Niccoli had spent so much on books that he was close to bankruptcy, Cosimo de’ Medici bailed him out. In exchange, Cosimo got a hand on Niccoli’s collection of manuscripts which he used for the first public library in Europe, an idea first conceptualized by Pala Strozzi, the richest man of Italy before Cosimo but exiled by the latter.
- Giovanni Aurispa (1376-1459), a Sicilian humanist who traveled to the East and returned to Italy in 1423 with a massive haul of 238 Greek manuscripts, among which all the works of Plato and work of Proclus, and various Greek historians and poets.
- Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459): As a papal secretary, Poggio used his travels to church councils to gain access to remote monasteries. He famously rediscovered Lucretius’s De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things, which preserved ancient Greek Epicurean philosophy, though written in Latin), as well as lost works by Cicero, Quintilian, and Vitruvius;
- Francesco Filelfo (1398-1481), a diplomat and scholar who collected a substantial library of Greek manuscripts while living in Constantinople before bringing them back to Italy.
- Cardinal Bessarion (1403-1472), a Byzantine scholar who was a close friend of Cusa and who later converted to Catholicism and gathered a vast library of over 500 Greek manuscripts (which eventually formed the core of the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice), saving countless philosophical and scientific texts from destruction.
Conclusion
Finally, looking at what was produced by the “Platonic Academy”, it has to be noted that both Ficino and even more his most important pupil Pico della Mirandola, became fervent supporters of the Dominican priest Savonarola. The latter called the Florentines to burn all their luxury goods leading them to sin. The books of the Plato-loving Boccaccio were thrown into the fire. Renaissance paintings were burned with Sandro Botticelli himself throwing some of his works in the giant fire burning, both as a spiritual catharsis and carnaval. It was Ficino’s favorite pupil Pico della Mirandola which convinced Lorenzo de Medici to allow Savonarola to enter Florence and present his doom day speeches.
Once it became clear that Savonarola was captivating growing anti-Medici sentiment, Ficino, to preserve his financial backing from the Medicis, retracted and felt obliged to criticize Savonarola who was violently attacking Medici rule. Savonarola criticized Ficino’s heavy reliance on magic and astrology.
Ficino only escaped from the Inquisition, who didn’t like Ficino’s mixture of Platonism, magic and Christianity, because Lorenzo de’ Medici’s wife, a scion of the Roman Orsini family and as such a part of the deep state ruling from above, intervened to prevent him getting sentenced. Savonarola was burned at the stake, not for theological heresy, mut for creating political uproar. But the extremism he unleashed was so threatening that Lorenzo’s successor, Piero the unfortunate (1472-1503), according to recent research, most likely poisoned by arsenic Pico della Mirandola and the poet Politiano, another pupil and friend of Ficino, both considered too much related to the wild Dominican.
Main points of argument:
- Yes, real Platonism, together with augustinian christianity, promoted the image of « Renaissance » man, a free creative being as created as a living image of the creator.
- Thanks to Petrarch, Boccaccio, Salutati, Bruni, Traversari and Cusa, studies of Greek and Latin bloomed in Florence and kiscked off a “Renaissance” at the beginning of the 15th century (construction of the gates of the Baptistry by Ghiberti) an elan that culminated with the construction of the Dome and the 1438 Council of Florence.
- Plethon was not the first to bring the full works of Plato to the West, they arrived in 1423 thanks to a collaborator of Nicholas of Cusa, Giovanni Aurispa.
- The translations of Plato’s work by the neo-Platonist (Plotinist) Marsilio Ficino, requested by Cosimo de’ Medici, only arrived at the end of the century (1484), that is AFTER the “Golden” Renaissance. They were not causing what happened before.
- Ficino and his loyal follower Pico della Mirandola ended up backing the Renaissance book and art burning dominican monk Savonarola.
- The Medici family fabricated a fairy tale (storytelling, propaganda, narrative) pretending it was them (Cosimo and Lorenzo de Medici) which initiated the Renaissance whose splendor they mainly wanted to appropriate for their own dynastic glory. But yes, without spending too much money, through various channels, and for their own reasons, the Medicis did keep financially afloat Ghiberti, Uccello, Fra Angelico, Filippo Lippi, Ghirlandaio, Brunelleschi, Donatello, Botticelli and Michelangelo. But one should remember: the amount of money spent for the golden frames of paintings was at least five times higher than that received by the artist. And, Leonardo da Vinci, the archetype of the creative Renaissance genius said: « The Medici created and destroyed me. » (Li medici mi crearono e distrussono) (see part II coming soon)
Works consulted:
- Debolt, Darien C. George Gemistos Plethon on God: Heterodoxy in Defense of Orthodoxy, University of Oklahoma:
- Diller, Aubrey. The autographs of Georgius Gemistus Pletho. Scriptorium, Tome 10 n°1, 1956. pp. 27-41;
- Hankins, James, The Myth of the Florentine Academy, Renaissance Quarterly, Volume 44, Number 3, 1991;
- Hankins, James, Cosimo de’ Medici and the ‘Platonic Academy’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 53 (1990), pp. 144-162. Published by the Warburg Institute;
- Kristeller, Paul Oskar. Marsilio Ficino as a beginning student of Plato. Scriptorium, Tome 20 n°1, 1966. pp. 41-54;
- Palmer, Ada, Inventing The Renaissance, Myths of a Golden Age, Head of Zeus, Bloomsbury Publishing 2025;
- Papacostas A., George, George Gemistos-Plethon, an overview of his life and thought with a comprehensive bibliography, Harrisburg, PA, 1979;
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Marsilio Ficino, 2024
- Vanhaelen Maude. Marsilio Ficino’s translation of Plato’s Eutyphro. In Scriptorium, Tome 56 n°1, 2002. pp. 20-47;
- Vereycken Karel, The Greek language project, Plato and the Renaissance, Artkarel.com, 2021;
- Vereycken Karel, Albrecht Dürer’s Fight Against Neo-Platonic Melancoly, Artkarel.com, 2005;
- Vereycken Karel, How Neo-Platonism gave Plato a Bad Name, Artkarel, 2005;
- Wilson, N. G., From Byzantium to Italy: Greek Studies in the Italian Renaissance. Bloomsbury Publishing.
- Woodhouse, C.M., George Gemistos Plethon, The Last of the Hellenes, Claredon Press, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1986;
Footnotes:
- Palmer, Ada, Inventing The Renaissance, Myths of a Golden Age, Head of Zeus, Bloomsbury Publishing 2025; ↩︎
- Hankins, James, Cosimo de’ Medici and the ‘Platonic Academy’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 53 (1990), pp. 144-162. Published by the Warburg Institute; ↩︎
- As quoted by James Hankins, Ibid; ↩︎
- Woodhouse, C.M., George Gemistos Plethon, The Last of the Hellenes, Claredon Press, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1986. ↩︎
- Woodhouse, C.M., Ibid.; ↩︎
- Woodhouse, C.M., Ibid.; ↩︎
- Kristeller, Paul Oskar. Marsilio Ficino as a beginning student of Plato. In: Scriptorium, Tome 20 n°1, 1966. pp. 41-54; ↩︎
- Kristeller, Paul Oskar, Ibid.; ↩︎
- Kristeller, Paul Oskar, Ibid.; ↩︎
- Hankins, James, Ibid.; ↩︎
Karel Vereycken selected for Paris Art Renaissance & International Salon (P.A.R.I.S.)

On August 27, 2026, Franco-Belgian Painter and Engraver Karel Vereycken was informed by the Los Angeles based art platform TERAVARNA, that he was selected as one of the twenty artists invited to expose their works physically at the Paris Art Renaissance & International Salon (P.A.R.I.S.). To be noted, Karel Vereycken will be the unique French national at this prestigious exhibit in the French capital.
TERAVARNA:
« Congratulations! We are thrilled to inform you that you have been selected to showcase your artwork with TERAVARNA at the P.A.R.I.S. 2026 exhibition. This is a fantastic achievement, and we are honored to present your work to an international audience in Paris. »
His engraving « Flemish Fisherman » will be physically present at the show. The list of the 20 winners is here.

Event Details:
- Venue: Hôtel Particulier Beaujon,
208, rue Faubourg Saint-Honoré, Paris, 75008. - Dates: November 23 – December 6, 2026
- Gala Night: November 25, 2026.
Karel Vereycken selected Finalist for Chicago Art Fair

Today, Franco-Belgian painter and engraver Karel Vereycken was informed by the Circle Foundation for the Arts (CFA) about the results of the Chicago art contest in which he participated with his engraving « The Coincidence of Opposites » (2026) :
With over 182 participating artists submitting artwork across a wide range of styles and media, selecting only a few pieces was not an easy task. Our goal is to provide variety, uphold inclusivity, and showcase a spectrum of notable approaches to contemporary art. We aim to offer our visitors at the Chicago fair the level of quality we are known for while also presenting something fresh and pleasantly unexpected.
I am very pleased to let you know that your work really stood out, and you have been selected as one of our 30 Contest Finalists. Congratulations!
As a Finalist, you are invited to exhibit with us at Chicago Art Fair

Karel Vereycken Gets First Prize at Romanian « Festival 4 Arts »

I’m very proud of receiving — for my engraving The Coincidence of Opposites — the First Prize of the 7th edition of the Romanian Festival 4 Arts. Many thanks and congratulations for all the young and less young artists and colleagues. Gives me a lot of hope!

La Tarasque de Tarascon

Karel Vereycken selected for 100 Watercolour Artists of Europe 2026

In August 2026, Franco-Belgian Painter engraver Karel Vereycken was informed that Culturale Lab, a major platform, selected his work, in particular his recent watercolor Minerva, goddess of Peace, to be included in « 100 Watercolour Artists of Europe – 2026 », to come out and reach the bookstores at the end of this year.
This curated volume, says Culturale Lab, is « a physical printed watercolour collection book, that brings together and celebrates the talent of 100 watercolour artists shaping contemporary watercolour across Europe. »
« Watercolour is one of the oldest and most beloved of media — luminous, immediate and unforgiving — yet it is too rarely celebrated in print on its own terms. « 100 Watercolour Artists of Europe 2026″ puts it at the centre: one hundred voices, styles and stories, gathered in a single, beautiful volume that will endure over time. »
Minerve, déesse de la Paix

Pont de Montifort à Lodève

Karel Vereycken longlisted for Artist of the Year Award

On July 29, Franco-Belgian painter-engraver Karel Vereycken was informed by the Visual Artists Association (VAA, based in London, UK) :
Dear Karel,
Thank you for applying to the Artist of the Year Awards 2026. We are delighted to inform you that you have been longlisted and will now progress to the second stage of the art prize – a massive congratulations!
With such a strong range of entries received this year, reaching the longlist is a fantastic achievement and reflects the strength of your submission. The judging process will now continue, with shortlist results expected to be announced in September 2026.
Leo Spaepen deciphers Bruegel’s code

On Saturday, July 11, Karel Vereycken spoke with Leo Spaepen, classicist and retired art history teacher, author of the book De Bruegel Code. Pieter Bruegel the Elder, political commentator and pacifist. (In Dutch, published by MER Books, 2025, ISBN 9789493410732, €39.90).
Karel Vereycken contributed with some footnotes.
Interview: « Bruegel painted history! »

Karel Vereycken: Dear Leo, you have written a wonderful book: The Bruegel Code. We are standing here at a historic location in the center of Wijnegem: the old inn De Swaen, which is depicted in its former shape in a painting by Bruegel, The Census at Bethlehem (1566, Royal Museums of Fine Arts, Brussels). Based on that discovery, after much study, you have developed a completely new perspective on Bruegel and his work. Can you tell us something about the origins of your book?
Leo Spaepen: That is a long history, going back to my childhood years. After all, I have always had a sentimental connection to this little building, because I grew up in the neighborhood. Moreover, as a young municipal councilor, I fought to save this piece of heritage from demolition. But back then, I had no idea that it had anything to do with Bruegel.


Right: Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Census at Bethlehem , detail (KMSK Brussels).
Are people being counted here or taxes collected?
This only became clear in 2004, when a historian from Wijnegem discovered that the inn De Swaen stands in the center of Bruegel’s painting The Census at Bethlehem. An identical building appears in a drawing from the Louvre, which was attributed to Pieter Bruegel the Elder (circa 1525-1569). Below that sketch, written in pencil, one can read: ‘At Wijnegem.’

From that, we could already deduce that the painting itself might also have had something to do with Wijnegem. A further step came with the research by Tine Meganck, who worked for the Brussels museum in 2018.
She established the connection with the sixteenth-century lord of Wijnegem, Jan Vleminck (1527-1568)1 , on whose domain the inn stood and who was therefore the owner thereof.
According to Meganck, it was this Jan Vleminck who commissioned the painting from Breugel to immortalize his appointment as Lord of Wijnegem and his right to collect taxes there.2
At first glance, that painting deals with only a Biblical subject, specifically a census during the time of Emperor Augustus. But if we look a little closer, we see the « double bottom. » The people in the painting are not only registering themselves, but they are also paying dues and taxes owed to the new lord of Wijnegem!
KV: So they go to Bethlehem to be counted, but their journey ends in Wijnegem, where they suddenly have to pay taxes…
LS: Yes, it is a bit surreal. Bruegel actually mixes two stories together here: a biblical one and a contemporary one. We could put it differently as a joke: the painting actually shows that Jesus Christ was not born in Bethlehem, but in Wijnegem in Belgium!
After reading the work of Tine Meganck, I started thinking about this way of composing. So Bruegel was working with two layers of meaning here: a superficial and a deeper meaning. I wondered: if he blended two stories in The Census, did he perhaps not apply the same process in other paintings as well?
Thorough research revealed that this was indeed the case. The discovery of that consistent pattern was a surprise and represented a major breakthrough in Bruegel studies, as many well-known paintings that had never been properly understood suddenly received a simple and, moreover, coherent explanation.
KV: So that’s where the name ‘The Bruegel Code’ comes from, a kind of key you found to understand his work?
LS: Certainly, and that key is actually very simple. Bruegel made comparisons: narrative A is reminiscent of narrative B. The payment of taxes to Jan Vleminck reminded him of the census in the time of Augustus, because in both cases people flocked somewhere to have themselves registered. Based on this associative connection, he thus made two stories into one painting with an ambiguous meaning.
KV: In that way, Bruegel could therefore actually comment on the political events of his time.
LS: Yes, and The Census at Bethlehem is merely an innocent example. But if we look at other paintings by Bruegel, we see that this technique of the double meaning is not so innocent. After all, the deeper layer of meaning usually has to do with the bitter political and religious conflict of that time: the struggle of the Catholic rulers against the rising Protestantism.
Those in power were King Philip II of Spain at the top, and locally the Regent of the Netherlands, Margaret of Parma, and her advisor Cardinal Granvelle, who had to act as a watchdog to ensure that she properly followed the instructions of the big boss.

Philip II of Spain


KV: Together with the other members of the ‘Secret Council.’3
LS: Indeed. There was no such thing as democracy or freedom of speech back then, so social criticism was always dangerous. Bruegel therefore had to hide his commentaries under a thick outer layer. This allowed him, for example, to adopt pacifist positions that could not be seen if one looked only superficially at the biblical story.
The Massacre of the Innocents in Bethlehem
In the same year as The Census at Bethlehem (1566), he painted The Massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem, in which he clearly spoke out against the violence of the iconoclasts.4
He hid the A-narrative, about the destruction of works of art by religious fanatics, under the B-narrative about innocent children who were killed by the soldiers of King Herod.

Is this a brutal massacre or grievous vandalism?
KV: Thanks to that method, the painter was also able to escape prosecution himself.
LS: Yes, because he himself was strongly influenced by a German « guru » with unorthodox religious views.5 He therefore had to be doubly careful when he targeted the Catholic rulers in his paintings, which were sometimes genuine political cartoons, for he could easily be accused of sympathizing with heresy. Not without reason, by the way.
Dulle Griet

KV: Criticism of the ruling elite is certainly present in De Dulle Griet (also known as Mad Meg —1563, Museum Mayer van den Bergh, Antwerp), perhaps the most difficult and least understood painting ever created in the Low Countries. Your book provides us with a new and surprising interpretation of this work.
LS: I only had to apply the formula I discovered in The Census to that painting. But that took some effort, because both the A and B narratives of Dulle Griet were unknown. But not in those days! Back then, everyone knew the story of the woman who was so audacious that she dared to commit a robbery under the nose of the devil in hell. That character comes from a rhetorician’s farce that has now been lost. Reconstructing that story was a greater challenge than finding the political story behind it. For I soon realized that ‘Griet’ is nothing other than the shortened, popular first name of Margaret of Parma. And who that central figure with his rose-red cloak is also quickly became clear to me: Granvelle, the bishop, cardinal, and advisor to Margaret of Parma.

Are women fighting men here, or Catholics fighting heretics?
KV: Why is the cardinal in the painting scattering money from his rear-end over the women?

LS: That dangerous detail refers to the fact that Granvelle paid citizens to denounce the Protestants to the Inquisition. In narrative B, that giant was normally supposed to throw stones, but because stones and money didn’t go together, Bruegel had to choose and used the ‘safe’ version with the stones in a model drawing that he for all security preserved in his workshop. The drawing, which is now part of the collection of the Kunstpalast in Düsseldorf, implicitly confirms the correctness of the discovered code of interpretation.
There is also that basket of valuable household goods and jewels that Griet holds under her arm. This refers to the robbery committed in hell in narrative B, but also to the confiscation of the possessions of the condemned heretics in narrative A. Those heretics were first stripped of their goods before being sent to the stake. And that stake is, of course, hell, into which Griet drives them with her sword.
We can therefore interpret all the details of the painting in two ways. In the same way, we can separate the two stories: on the one hand, the struggle between lazy men and angry women, and on the other, the struggle between ‘bad’ heretics and ‘good’ Catholics. Everything is ambiguous. A magnificent puzzle!
KV: You write in your introduction that Bruegel as a political commentator and a pacifist is not new, but that this view of the painter is certainly not universally accepted.
LS: In Belgium, the ‘deniers’ are still very dominant, as I have experienced firsthand. For instance, articles on political interpretations of Bruegel are rejected under all sorts of pretexts. Abroad, however, the question of whether there are political messages in Bruegel’s work has actually been investigated for quite some time. However, this always concerned only one, two, or at most three paintings, and never yielded convincing results.
In Maastricht, for example, an exhibition ran in 2021 titled: Art as Hidden Resistance?6 With a Question Mark. It concerned the painting The Procession to Calvary, but the question mark and the doubt could not be removed. Art historians in Germany and America have also been engaged in this research for some time, consistently resulting in vague guessing.
To my great surprise, however, no one had ever systematically searched for connections between Bruegel’s paintings and the current events of the time. I therefore arranged not two or three, but all the allegorical paintings chronologically myself, and then confronted them with the events of the 1560s as described in chronicles, letters, and history books. That research confirmed, based on numerous clues, that Pieter Bruegel the Elder closely followed the political-religious conflict of his time in at least fifteen paintings, up to and including the first battles of the Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648).
So my book is not just about art, but also about history, and especially about the connection between the two. Bruegel painted history!
KV: Thanks again for this fascinating work, which I believe is an important step towards a better understanding of Bruegel and our cultural history.
(Message to the viewer:) So buy this book, and above all: read it!
FOOTNOTES:
- The Vleminck family settled in Antwerp, where she played an important role in international trade. Jan Vleminck married Isabella Schetz on July 21, 1561, daughter of banker Gaspar Schetz (1513-1580). Together with Balthazar and Melchior, Gaspar was one of the three sons of Emperor Charles’s Antwerp banker Erasmus Schetz, who was also a friend and financier of Erasmus. Melchior Schetz was the Prince of the Antwerp rhetoric chamber De Violieren and, in that capacity, together with external mayor Anthonis Van Straelen, a key figure in the organization of the glorious Antwerp Landjuweel of 1561. ↩︎
- Tine Luk Meganck, ‘Census at Bethlehem. Winter of a Golden Age’ in: Bruegel’s Winter Scenes. Historians and Art Historians in Dialogue, eds. Tine Luk Meganck and Sabine van Sprang, 2018, pp. 85-127. ↩︎
- Charles de Berlaymont (1510-1578), Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (1517-1582) and Viglius van Aytta (1507-1577) were the three leading figures of the Privy Council (consulta), established by Emperor Charles V, in Bruegel’s time. ↩︎
- The Iconoclasm was a large-scale destruction of statues of saints and other objects at Catholic religious sites in the Low Countries, which took place in 1566. ↩︎
- More precise, the German mystic Hendrik Niclaes (1501–1580), founder in 1539 of the Familia Caritatis (‘House of Love’), an almost secret group that held great appeal for intellectuals, merchants, and artists. Niclaes called for an individual sense of God and believed that different views could be brought into harmony on a deeper level. It was a contemplative, tolerant attitude to life that largely appeared to be reserved for educated people. A philosopher like Socrates, who relativized all authority and worldly knowledge, enjoyed great popularity in these circles. Associated with the House of Love (without necessarily being a member thereof): printers Christoffel Plantijn, John Gailliart, the humanists Abraham Ortelius, Justus Lipsius, Andreas Masius, Goropius Becanus, Benito Arias Montano, the poets Peeter Heyns, Jan van der Noot, Lucas d’Heere, the painters Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Filips Galle, Joris Hoefnagel, the theologian Hubert Duifhuis, the writer Dirck Volkertsz. Coornhert, ‘familists’ Daniel van Bombergen, Emanuel van Meteren, Johan Radermacher and the Antwerp merchants Marcus Perez and Ferdinando Ximines. ↩︎
- Bonnefanten Museum, Maastricht. Catalogue: Bruegel and Contemporaries, Art as Hidden Resistance?, Lars Hendrikman and Dorien Tamis, Waanders Publishers, 2021. ↩︎
Leo Spaepen oncijfert de code van Bruegel

Op zaterdag 11 juli sprak Karel Vereycken met Leo Spaepen, classicus en voormalig docent kunstgeschiedenis, auteur van het boek De Bruegel Code. Pieter Bruegel de Oude, politiek commentator en pacifist. (Uitgeverij MER Books, 2025, ISBN 9789493410732, 39,90 €).
Met enkele voetnoten van Karel Vereycken.
Interview: « Bruegel schilderde geschiedenis ! »

Karel Vereycken: Beste Leo, je hebt een prachtig boek geschreven: De Bruegel Code. We staan hier op een historische locatie in het centrum van Wijnegem: de oude herberg De Swaen, die in zijn vroegere vorm is afgebeeld op een schilderij van Bruegel, De volkstelling te Bethlehem (1566, Koninklijke Musea voor Schone Kunsten, Brussel). Vanuit die vondst heb je na veel studie een heel nieuwe kijk ontwikkeld op Bruegel en zijn werk. Kan je iets zeggen over het ontstaan van je boek?
Leo Spaepen: Dat is een lange geschiedenis, die al teruggaat tot mijn jeugdjaren. Ik heb immers altijd al een sentimentele band gehad met dit gebouwtje, want ik ben in de buurt opgegroeid. Bovendien heb ik er als jong gemeenteraadslid mee voor gestreden om dit stuk erfgoed voor afbraak te behoeden. Maar toen wist ik nog helemaal niet dat het iets met Bruegel te maken had.


Rechts: Pieter Bruegel de Oude, De volkstelling te Bethlehem, detail (KMSK Brussel).
Worden hier mensen geteld of belastingen ontvangen?
Dat is pas duidelijk geworden in 2004, toen een Wijnegemse historicus ontdekte dat de herberg De Swaen centraal staat op het schilderij van Bruegel De volkstelling te Bethlehem. Identiek hetzelfde gebouw staat namelijk op een tekening uit het Louvre, die werd toegeschreven aan Pieter Bruegel de Oude (circa 1525-1569). Onder die schets is met potlood geschreven: ‘Te Wijnegem’.

Daaruit konden we al afleiden dat ook het schilderij zelf misschien wel iets met Wijnegem heeft te maken gehad. Een verdere stap kwam er met het onderzoek van Tine Meganck, die in 2018 werkte voor het museum van Brussel.
Zij heeft het verband gelegd met de zestiende-eeuwse heer van Wijnegem Jan Vleminck (1527-1568) 1, op wiens domein de herberg stond en die er dus de eigenaar van was.
Volgens Meganck was het deze Jan Vleminck die bij Breugel het schilderij heeft besteld, om er zijn aanstelling tot heer van Wijnegem mee te vereeuwigen, en zijn recht om daar belastingen te innen.2
Op het eerste gezicht behandelt dat schilderij alleen maar een Bijbels onderwerp, met name een volkstelling ten tijde van keizer Augustus. Maar als we een beetje beter kijken, dan zien we de dubbele bodem. De mensen op het schilderij laten zich niet alleen registreren, maar ze betalen ook cijnzen en belastingen die ze verschuldigd zijn aan de nieuwe heer van Wijnegem!
KV: Ze gaan dus naar Bethlehem om zich te laten tellen, maar hun reis eindigt in Wijnegem, waar ze plotseling belasting moeten betalen…
LS: Ja, het is een beetje surrealistisch. Bruegel gooit hier eigenlijk twee verhalen door elkaar: een Bijbels en een eigentijds. We zouden het met een grapje nog anders kunnen zeggen: uit het schilderij blijkt eigenlijk dat Jezus Christus niet in Bethlehem is geboren, maar in Wijnegem!
Na het werk van Tine Meganck gelezen te hebben, begon ik daarover na te denken. Bruegel werkte hier dus met twee betekenislagen: een oppervlakkige en een diepere betekenis. Ik vroeg me af: als hij in De volkstelling twee verhalen met elkaar heeft vermengd, heeft hij hetzelfde procedé dan misschien ook niet in andere schilderijen toegepast?
Grondig onderzoek bracht aan het licht dat dit inderdaad het geval was. De ontdekking van dat vaste patroon was een verrassing en betekende een grote doorbraak in de Bruegelstudie, want vele bekende schilderijen die nooit goed werden begrepen, kregen nu plots een simpele en bovendien samenhangende verklaring.
KV: dus vandaar de naam ‘De Bruegel Code’, een soort sleutel die je hebt gevonden om zijn werk te begrijpen?
LS: Zeker, en die sleutel is eigenlijk heel eenvoudig. Bruegel maakte vergelijkingen: verhaal A doet denken aan verhaal B. De betaling van belastingen aan Jan Vleminck deed hem denken aan de telling van de bevolking in de tijd van Augustus, want in de twee gevallen stroomden de mensen ergens toe om zich laten opschrijven. Op basis van dit associatieve verband maakte hij dus van twee verhalen één schilderij met een dubbelzinnige betekenis.
KV: Op die manier kon Bruegel dus eigenlijk commentaar geven op de politieke gebeurtenissen van zijn tijd.
LS: Ja, want De volkstelling te Bethlehem is slechts een onschuldig voorbeeld. Maar als we andere schilderijen van Bruegel bekijken, dan zien we dat die techniek van de dubbele bodem niet zo onschuldig is. De diepere betekenislaag heeft immers meestal te maken met het bittere politieke en religieuze conflict van die tijd: de strijd van de katholieke machthebbers tegen het opkomende protestantisme.
Die machthebbers, dat waren koning Filips II van Spanje bovenaan, en ter plaatse de landvoogdes van de Nederlanden Margaretha van Parma, en haar adviseur kardinaal Granvelle, die er als waakhond moest op letten dat zij de instructies van de grote baas goed opvolgde.



KV: Samen met de andere leden van de ‘geheime raad’.3
LS: Inderdaad. Van democratie en van vrije meningsuiting was toen nog geen sprake, en maatschappijkritiek was dus altijd gevaarlijk. Bruegel moest zijn commentaren daarom verstoppen onder een dikke bovenlaag. Zo kon hij bijvoorbeeld pacifistische standpunten innemen, die men niet kon zien als men oppervlakkig enkel naar het Bijbelverhaal keek.
De kindermoord te Bethlehem
In hetzelfde jaar als De volkstelling te Bethlehem (1566) schilderde hij De kindermoord te Bethlehem, ook bekend als De moord op de onnozele kinderen, waarin hij zich duidelijk uitsprak tegen het geweld van de beeldenstormers. 4
Het A-verhaal, over het vernielen van kunstwerken door godsdienstfanaten, verstopte hij onder het B-verhaal over onschuldige kinderen die werden gedood door de soldaten van koning Herodes.

Is dit een brutale moordpartij of zwaar vandalisme?
KV: Dankzij die methode kon de schilder ook zelf ontsnappen aan vervolging.
LS: Ja, want hij was zelf sterk beïnvloed door een Duitse ‘goeroe’ met onorthodoxe religieuze opvattingen. 5 Hij moest dus dubbel voorzichtig zijn wanneer hij in zijn schilderijen, die soms echte politieke cartoons waren, de katholieke machthebbers op de korrel nam, want daarmee kon hij gemakkelijk worden beschuldigd van sympathie voor de ketterij. Niet onterecht trouwens.
De Dulle Griet

KV: Kritiek op het beleid zit zeker in De Dulle Griet (1563, Museum Mayer van den Bergh, Antwerpen), misschien wel het moeilijkste en het minst begrepen schilderij dat ooit in de Lage Landen is gemaakt. Je boek levert ons een nieuwe en verrassende interpretatie van dit werk.
LS: Ik hoefde enkel de formule, die ik ontdekt heb in De volkstelling, toe te passen op dat schilderij. Maar dat kostte wel wat moeite, want zowel het A- als het B-verhaal van De Dulle Griet waren onbekend. Maar niet in die tijd! Toen kende iedereen het verhaal over de vrouw die zo vermetel was dat zij een roof durfde te plegen voor de hel. Die figuur komt uit een rederijkersklucht, die nu is verloren gegaan. Dat verhaal reconstrueren was een grotere uitdaging dan het vinden van het politieke verhaal dat erachter zit. Want ik kwam al snel tot het besef dat ‘Griet’ niets anders is dan de verkorte, volkse voornaam van Margaretha van Parma. En wie die centrale figuur is met zijn rozerode mantel, was voor mij ook vlug duidelijk: Granvelle, de bisschop, kardinaal en raadgever van Margaretha van Parma.

Vechten hier vrouwen tegen mannen of katholieken tegen ketters?
KV: Waarom strooit de kardinaal, in het schilderij, geld uit zijn achterwerk uit over de vrouwen?

LS: Dat gevaarlijke detail verwijst naar het feit dat Granvelle burgers betaalde om de protestanten te verklikken aan de inquisitie. In het B-verhaal had die reus normaal met stenen moeten gooien, maar omdat stenen en geld niet samengingen, moest Bruegel kiezen en heeft hij de ‘veilige’ versie met de stenen gebruikt in een modeltekening, die hij voor alle zekerheid zorgvuldig in zijn atelier bewaarde. De tekening, die zich vandaag in het Kunstpalast van Düsseldorf bevindt, bevestigt impliciet de juistheid van de gevonden code.
Zo is er ook die mand met kostbare huisraad en juwelen, die Griet onder haar arm houdt. Die verwijst naar het plegen van een roof voor de hel in het B-verhaal, maar ook naar de inbeslagname van de bezittingen van de veroordeelde ketters in het A-verhaal. Die ketters werden eerst van hun goederen beroofd, vooraleer ze naar de brandstapel werden verwezen. En die brandstapel is dan natuurlijk de hel, waarin Griet hen met haar zwaard drijft.
Alle details van het schilderij kunnen we dus op twee manieren uitleggen. Zo kunnen we ook de twee verhalen uit elkaar halen: enerzijds de strijd tussen luie mannen en boze vrouwen, en anderzijds de strijd tussen ‘slechte’ ketters en ‘goede’ katholieken. Alles is dubbelzinnig. Een schitterende puzzel!
KV: Je schrijft in je inleiding dat Bruegel als politiek commentator niet nieuw is, maar dat die kijk op de schilder zeker niet algemeen wordt aanvaard.
LS: In België zijn de ‘negationisten’ nog heel dominant, zoals ik zelf heb kunnen ondervinden. Zo worden artikels over politieke interpretaties van Bruegel onder allerlei voorwendsels geweigerd. In het buitenland daarentegen is de vraag of er politieke boodschappen zitten in Bruegels werk wél al langer onderzocht. Het ging daarbij echter altijd maar over één, twee of hooguit drie schilderijen, en nooit leverde het overtuigende resultaten op.
In Maastricht liep bijvoorbeeld in 2021 een expositie met als titel: Kunst als verborgen verzet? 6 Met vraagteken. Het ging over het schilderij De kruisgang van Christus, maar het vraagteken en de twijfel kreeg men niet weg. Ook in Duitsland en in Amerika zijn kunsthistorici al langer met dat onderzoek bezig, steeds met vage vermoedens als resultaat.
Tot mijn grote verwondering had echter nog nooit iemand systematisch gezocht naar verbanden tussen Bruegels schilderijen en de actualiteit van toen. Zelf heb ik daarom niet twee of drie, maar alle allegorische schilderijen chronologisch geordend en dan geconfronteerd met de gebeurtenissen van de jaren 1560, zoals die beschreven zijn in kronieken, brieven en geschiedenisboeken. Dat onderzoek bevestigde, aan de hand van talrijke aanwijzingen, dat Pieter Bruegel de Oude in minstens een vijftiental schilderijen het politiek-religieuze conflict van zijn tijd op de voet volgde, tot en met de eerste veldslagen van de Tachtigjarige Oorlog (1568-1648).
Mijn boek gaat dus niet enkel over kunst, maar ook over geschiedenis, en vooral over het verband tussen beide. Bruegel schilderde geschiedenis!
KV: Nogmaals bedankt voor dit boeiende werk, dat volgens mij een belangrijke stap is naar een beter begrip van Bruegel en van onze cultuurgeschiedenis. (Bericht aan de kijker:) Koop dus dit boek, en vooral: lees het!
VOETNOTEN:
- De familie Vleminck vestigde zich in Antwerpen waar zij een belangrijke rol speelde in de internationale handel. Jan Vleminck huwde op 21 juli 1561 met Isabella Schetz, dochter van bankier Gaspar Schetz (1513-1580). Samen met Balthazar en Melchior, was Gaspar één van de drie zonen van Keizer Karels Antwerpse bankier Erasmus Schetz, ook een vriend en geldschieter van Erasmus. Melchior Schetz was de Prins van de antwerpse rederijkerskamer De Violieren en in die functie, samen met buitenburgemeester Anthonis Van Straelen, een hoofdfiguur voor de organisatie van het roemrijke Antwerpse Landjuweel van 1561. ↩︎
- Tine Luk Meganck, ‘Volkstelling te Bethlehem. Winter van een gouden tijdperk’ in: Bruegels wintertaferelen. Historici en kunsthistorici in dialoog, eds. Tine Luk Meganck en Sabine van Sprang, 2018, p. 85-127. ↩︎
- Charles de Berlaymont (1510-1578), Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (1517-1582) et Viglius van Aytta (1507-1577) waren in de tijd van Bruegel de drie kopstukken van de Geheime raad (consulta), opgericht door Keizer Karel. ↩︎
- De Beeldenstorm was een vernieling op grote schaal van heiligenbeelden en andere objecten van katholieke religieuze plaatsen in de Lage Landen, die plaatsvond in 1566. ↩︎
- Met name, de Duitse mysticus Hendrik Niclaes (1501-1580), oprichter in 1539 van de Familia Caritatis (‘Huis der Liefde.’) een bijna geheime groep die een grote aantrekkingskracht had op intellectuelen, kooplieden en kunstenaars. Niclaes riep op tot een individueel godsbesef en dacht dat verschillende opvattingen op een dieper niveau tot harmonie gebracht konden worden. Het was een contemplatieve, tolerante levenshouding die veelal bleek voorbehouden aan ontwikkelde mensen. Een wijsgeer als Socrates, die alle gezag en wereldlijke kennis relativeerde, genoot grote populariteit in deze kringen. Worden in verband gebracht met het Huis der Liefde (zonder noodzakelijk lidmaatschap daarvan) : drukkers Christoffel Plantijn, John Gailliart, de humanisten Abraham Ortelius, Justus Lipsius, Andreas Masius, Goropius Becanus, Benito Arias Montano, de dichters Peeter Heyns, Jan van der Noot, Lucas d’Heere, de kunstschilders Pieter Bruegel de Oude, Filips Galle, Joris Hoefnagel, de theoloog Hubert Duifhuis, de schrijver Dirck Volkertsz. Coornhert, ‘familisten’ Daniel van Bombergen, Emanuel van Meteren, Johan Radermacher en de Antwerpse kooplieden Marcus Perez en Ferdinando Ximines. ↩︎
- Bonnefanten Museum, Maastricht. Catalogus: Bruegel en tijdgenoten, Kunst als verborgen verzet?, Lars Hendrikman et Dorien Tamis, Uitgeverij Waanders, 2021. ↩︎
Le jour où l’Église faillit interdire la polyphonie en musique

par Karel Vereycken
Durant l’Antiquité, l’art musical (et donc celui de l’Église primitive) ne connaissait apparemment que la monodie. La grande invention du Moyen Âge fut celle de la polyphonie où chaque voix contribue à un tout harmonique. Au XVIe siècle, lors du Concile de Trente, certains cardinaux ont cherché à l’interdire…
C’est au IXe siècle que l’art de la polyphonie commence à apparaître et à se développer, de manière encore discrète mais manifeste, à l’église tout d’abord.
Aux XIe et XIIe siècles, l’abbaye bénédictine Saint-Martial de Limoges ainsi que d’autres églises et abbayes jouent un rôle important dans le développement de la polyphonie. Celle-ci connaîtra un premier rayonnement national et international à Paris (alors qualifiée de « nouvelle Athènes »), aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles, grâce aux chantres-compositeurs de l’École de Notre-Dame de Paris, cathédrale nouvellement construite et centre culturel de premier plan (tout comme le sera l’université, créée à Paris au milieu du XIIIe siècle, par le théologien Robert de Sorbon).
À Notre-Dame, les chantres les plus connus furent Léonin et Pérotin. Ils représentent les premiers grands créateurs de ce que les musiciens du siècle suivant appelleront l’Ars antiqua, par opposition à l’Ars nova, dont les créateurs se lancèrent dans de nouvelles recherches, parfois très abstraites, comme chez Philippe de Vitry.
L’usage liturgique de la musique de l’ars nova fut déjà rejeté au XIVe siècle par le pape Jean XXII dans sa décrétale Docta Sanctorum Patrum (vers 1323), mais accepté par le pape Clément VI.
A cause de la polyphonie, le chant monophonique, déjà harmonisé pour un simple orgue, s’est vu altéré, fragmenté, et dissimulé derrière des mélodies profanes. Les paroles des poèmes d’amour courtois pouvaient être chantés en dessus de textes sacrés, ou des textes sacrés pouvaient être placés à l’intérieur d’une mélodie profane. Pour les autorités religieuses, ce n’était pas tant la polyphonie qui était une offense dans les âges médiévaux, mais la notion de musique profane qui se combine au sacré et prenant place dans la liturgie.
Le grand compositeur polyphonique né avec le XIVe siècle est le Rémois Guillaume de Machaut (v. 1300-1377), auteur, en particulier, de la première messe polyphonique entière (la Messe Nostre Dame). Comme les autres musiciens, il écrivit aussi bon nombre de pièces profanes, tant l’art de la polyphonie s’était répandu dans bien des domaines musicaux.
Pendant la guerre de Cent Ans, certains duchés situés à l’écart du conflit, comme les Pays-Bas bourguignons et la Bourgogne, connaissent la paix et la prospérité économique. Le développement des manufactures, notamment textiles, dans les Pays-Bas (comté de Hainaut, comté de Flandre, principauté de Liège, duché de Luxembourg et duché de Brabant) y contribue au développement des arts. Pendant près de deux siècles, ces régions feront figure de principal centre culturel de l’Europe.
Si plusieurs foyers de création musicale émergent en Europe, principalement en France et en Italie, c’est l’école franco-flamande qui s’impose. Elle se singularise dès 1420 par le développement fulgurant de la polyphonie et du contrepoint et pose ainsi les bases de l’harmonie moderne.

Bien que l’évolution du langage musical fût continue tout au long de la période, on distingue en général six générations de compositeurs franco-flamands, dont chacune dure une quarantaine d’années et se caractérise par l’influence de quelques compositeurs marquants :
- La première génération (1420-1450), appelée école bourguignonne du fait de la domination bourguignonne dans cette région à l’époque, est principalement représentée par Guillaume Dufay, Gilles Binchois, Johannes de Limburgia et Johannes Ciconia de Liège. Cette génération marque une évolution par rapport à la musique médiévale, car très progressivement s’élabore un début de considération verticale de la musique polyphonique.
- La deuxième génération (1450-1485), dont Johannes Ockeghem et Antoine Busnois furent les compositeurs les plus célèbres, est marquée par le perfectionnement du motet, forme musicale née au XIIIe siècle, et qui devient un lieu privilégié de l’expérimentation du contrepoint.
- La troisième (1480-1520), représentée en premier lieu par Josquin des Prés, souvent considéré comme le plus grand compositeur de l’école franco-flamande de l’époque, mais également Alexandre Agricola, Jacob Obrecht, Loyset Compère, Pierre de La Rue, Heinrich Isaac et Antoine Brumel qui, bien que français, se rattache à l’école franco-flamande par son style.
- Quatrième génération (1520-1560) : Adriaan Willaert, Cyprien de Rore.
- Cinquième génération (1560-1600) : Roland de Lassus, Jacques de Wert.
- Sixième génération (1600-1633) : Matheo Romero, dernier représentant de l’école franco-flamande, actif en Espagne à la Capilla flamenca fondée à Madrid par Charles Quint en 1515.
Dans la suite de Guillaume de Machaut, les compositeurs de l’école franco-flamande développent un nouveau genre musical, dans lequel sont mises en musique les cinq parties de l’ordinaire de la messe : kyrie, gloria, credo, sanctus et agnus Dei.
Voici, à titre d’exemple de cette musique polyphonique franco-flamande, Nymphes des bois, déploration sur la mort d’Ockegem, une oeuvre composée par Josquin des Prés en 1497.

par Léonard de Vinci, vers 1485-1490.

Texte:
Nimphes des bois, deesses des fontaines
Chantres expers de toutes nations
Changés vos voix tant cleres et haultaines
En cris tranchans et lamentations
Car d’Atropos les molestations
Vostr’ Ockeghem par sa rigueur attrappe
Vray tresoir de musicque et chief d’oeuvre
Qui de trépas désormais plus n’eschappe
Dont grant domaige est que la terre coeuvre.
Accoutrez vous d’habits de doeul,
Josquin, Brumel, Pierchon, Compere,
Et plourez grosses larmes d’œil
Perdu avez vostre bon pere,
Requiescat in pace.
Rayonnement international
Les compositeurs franco-flamands ne se contentent pas de rester dans leur patrie mais partent travailler dans d’autres pays d’Europe. Ils se rendent ainsi en Italie, en Espagne, en France et en Allemagne où ils font connaître leur style. Celui-ci se répand rapidement grâce aux nombreux manuscrits (qui subsistent dans plusieurs bibliothèques en Europe ou aux États-Unis) et à l’essor contemporain de l’imprimerie.
Le dôme de la cathédrale Florence, avec sa gigantesque coupole construite par Brunelleschi, fut consacré le 25 mars 1436 avec un motet à quatre voix, Nuper Rosarum Flores, composé pour l’occasion par le flamand Guillaume Dufay. Ce motet, qui décrit le dôme comme décoré par des guirlandes de roses, tire également profit des proportions choisies par l’architecte pour l’édifice.
Dans sa Description de tous les Pays Bas parue en italien à Anvers en 1567 puis traduite et rééditée à de nombreuses reprise, l’historien florentin Lodovico Guicciardini insiste, lui, sur la dimension collective de cette « restauration » de la musique, en soulignant le rôle déterminant de la région dont traite son livre pour l’histoire de la musique1 :

« Les Belges sont aussi les vrais maistres et restaurateurs de la musique : ce sont eux qui l’ont remise sus et réduite à sa perfection, l’ayans si propre et naturelle que hommes et femmes y chantent comme de leur instinct par mesure, et cecy avec grand grace et mélodie : tellement qu’ayans depuis conjoinct l’art à ce naturel, ils font telle preuve et par la voix et par les instrumentz de toutes sortes que chacun voit et scait : veu qu’il n’y a court de Prince Chrestien, en laquelle n’y aye quelcun de ses musiciens.
Et à fin que je parle de ceux de nostre temps : de ceste province sont sortis Jean Tainturier de Nivelle, duquel je fais mention en la ville dont il estoit natif, à cause de l’excellence et sûreté de sa vertu : Josquin de Prez, Obrecht, Ockegem, Richiafort, Adrian Willart, Jean Mouton, Verdelot, Gombert, Lupus Lupi, Courtois, Créquillon, Clément non Papa et Cornille Canis, tous lesquels sont décedez : mais les ensuivants vivent : Cyprian de Rore, Jean le Coich, Philippe de Monte, Orland de Lassus, Mancicourt, Josquin Baston, Chrestien Hollandois, Jacques de Waet, Bonmarché, Severin Cornet, Pierre du Hot, Gérard de Tornhout, Hubert Waelrant, Jacquet de Berchem, lieu voisin d’Anvers, et d’autres encor très renommez et fameux maistres en musique espars en honneur et honnestes degrez par le monde. »
Ce qui fait dire au musicologue belge Paul Van Nevel (directeur du Huelgas Ensemble) :
« La splendeur de la Flandre résidait dans le fait qu’elle exportait non pas des cyclistes, ni des footballeurs, mais des musiciens : des chanteurs et des compositeurs célèbres, à la réputation parfois sulfureuse, aptes à flatter les oreilles des puissants. Ils jouissaient d’une notoriété véritablement internationale, ce qui n’était pas insignifiant dans une Europe où les médias actuels n’existaient pas. »
Une chape de plomb
Au début du XVIe siècle, une « deuxième » Renaissance vient bousculer le monde. Avec la montée de l’humanisme chrétien (Erasme, Rabelais, Briçonnet, Lefèvre d’Etaples, Budé, etc.) et la diffusion des savoirs grâce à l’imprimerie, les courants les plus rétrogrades de l’Église craignent de perdre leur contrôle sur les peuples et les profits qu’ils en tirent.
Aux Pays-Bas bourguignons, c’est notamment le Landjuweel d’Anvers de 1561, grande fête culturelle réunissant des milliers d’habitants qui s’expriment avec grande liberté lors de pièces de théâtres, de farces, de satires et de récitations poétiques et musicales, qui fait craindre le pire aux puissants.
Le Concile de Trente

(Musée civil du Palais Farnèse, Rome.)
Les coupables, selon eux, seraient une élite culturelle urbaine ayant trop pris le goût de la liberté et des belles choses, considérée pêle-mêle comme des crypto-luthériens et autres partisans de la Réforme, capables d’entraîner dans leur sillage toute la population.
Il faut donc réagir, et vite, en particulier au niveau de l’art et de la culture. Pour ce faire, le pape Paul III convoque des cardinaux pour discuter des fondements du dogme catholique et répondre à la menace protestante. S’ensuivent vingt-cinq sessions qui se tiennent à Trente et à Bologne, durant lesquelles les cardinaux passent en revue les différents dogmes dénoncés par la Réforme. Ce cycle est connu sous le nom de Concile de Trente (1545-1563).
En premier lieu, rejetant les demandes explicites d’Erasme et du Cénacle de Meaux (Lefèvre d’Etaples, Briçonnet, etc.), les Pères du Concile de Trente réaffirment l’usage exclusif du latin aussi bien pour la Bible et la messe que pour la musique.
Selon quels arguments a-t-on imposé le latin au détriment des langues vernaculaires ? Tout d’abord, le latin était considéré comme la langue spirituelle. De plus, on craignait que les traductions engendrent des erreurs d’interprétation des textes, pouvant dans certains cas conduire à l’affirmation d’idées hérétiques. En affirmant la préséance du latin, les autorités religieuses font aussi passer le message suivant : la Bible est l’affaire des théologiens avant d’être celle du peuple. Toutefois, pour faciliter la compréhension des fidèles, le Concile acceptera l’ajout de commentaires en langue vernaculaire durant la messe.
Logos contre Melos
Au niveau pictural, le Concile met les peintres sous tutelle. Leurs œuvres, sans ambiguïté, doivent instruire le peuple par un art didactique illustrant la vie de Marie, celle des Saints, et les Évangiles.
« Le saint concile statue qu’il n’est permis à personne, dans aucun lieu ni église, même exempte, de placer ou faire placer une image inhabituelle, à moins que celle-ci n’ait été approuvée par l’évêque. »2
Les œuvres de Quinten Matsys ou Pieter Bruegel l’ancien n’étaient donc plus les bienvenues dans les églises catholiques. Par contre, Pierre-Paul Rubens, champion du baroque, y était chaudement accueilli.
Sur la plan musical, certains cardinaux partent de la distinction entre le logos (le verbe) et le melos (la mélodie), le premier ne s’adressant qu’à l’esprit, le second, selon eux, qu’aux sens. Ils en concluent en toute logique que le melos utilisé seul, sans être associé au logos, ne procure qu’un plaisir vil et ne permet pas l’élévation de l’âme. CQFD.
Du coup, toute musique qui ne serait pas le vecteur d’un texte religieux est qualifiée de musica troppo molle qu’il faut évidemment bannir. Le melos, grâce à des paroles prononcées, doit donc se joindre au logos pour être vertueux. La musique ne doit en aucun cas nuire à l’intelligibilité du texte. Pour cela, les Pères du Concile suggèrent une prononciation plus articulée des paroles. Toute polyphonie devient d’emblée suspecte car elle peut entraver l’intelligibilité des paroles et conduire l’auditeur à se concentrer davantage sur la musique en soi que sur le texte.
Qu’il existe, comme J.S. Bach et tant d’autres l’ont démontré par la suite, des « idées musicales » capables de transmettre, rien qu’avec des notes (sans paroles), les plus hautes conceptions glorifiant le Créateur et sa Création, ne semble pas leur avoir effleuré l’esprit.
Ainsi, « l’imitation »3 et toute autre technique contrapuntique occasionnant une déclamation différée du texte dans les différentes voix de la polyphonie offusquent fortement les Pères du Concile.
En fin de compte, cette menace de bannir la polyphonie, déjà acté une première fois au XIVe siècle par le pape Jean XXII avant d’être re-légalisé pendant la peste noire par le pape Clément VI, ne déboucha pas sur un interdit, en particulier grâce aux interventions de cardinaux espagnols présents aux différentes sessions du Concile, qui encouragèrent les autres Pères à ne pas appliquer ce décret.
Cependant, intimidés, les compositeurs s’imposeront l’autocensure. Le cas le plus frappant est celui du compositeur italien Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525-1594). En composant sa fameuse Missa Papae Marcelli (1562-1563), il s’efforce de démontrer que la polyphonie est tout à fait compatible avec la compréhension du texte… Mais dans cette œuvre, le compositeur favorise une déclamation syllabique du texte en revenant à une musique collective à une voix, chantée à l’unisson comme le grégorien d’avant la Renaissance. Afin d’éviter la monotonie, Palestrina substitue à l’imitation une autre technique de composition en faisant alterner différents groupes de voix. Les six voix de la polyphonie chantent rarement en même temps, ce qui permet d’éviter les dissonances et les frottements suspects. Une grande partie de la pièce n’est chantée au maximum que par quatre d’entre elles, l’ensemble des six voix étant réservé aux passages textuels particulièrement importants qui sont ainsi mis en valeur.
Palestrina renonce donc à l’essentiel en abandonnant « l’imitation », ce procédé de composition utilisé dans le canon, où un motif du morceau de musique se répète successivement plus ou moins littéralement dans différentes voix.
Plusieurs pays et villes acceptèrent les décrets du Concile de Trente, tels que l’Espagne, Rome, ou la totalité des Églises catholiques des îles britanniques. En revanche, la France refusa catégoriquement d’en appliquer les règles. De plus, les compositeurs accueillirent ces décrets de manière très variée. L’école milanaise, notamment, s’y conforma, les musiciens de l’école vénitienne beaucoup moins.
La triste ironie de l’histoire est que si le Concile de Trente ne parvint pas à imposer l’abandon de la polyphonie, en revanche, certains réformateurs, notamment Calvin à Genève, enfermés eux aussi dans un littéralisme absurde, choisirent de revenir à la monodie pour garantir une compréhension optimale du texte.
Comme le précise la musicologue Annie Sulzer :
« L’usage des instruments fut également discuté lors du Concile de Trente. De nouveau, le choix des autorités catholiques s’inscrit à l’opposé de ce que firent les Réformateurs : alors que les orgues furent détruites à Genève, par exemple, l’Eglise catholique quant à elle ne renonça pas à l’usage de cet instrument. En revanche, la longueur des pièces jouées à l’orgue fut considérablement diminuée. »
En cherchant à imposer la parole (la leur), ils ont failli arrêter la musique.
- Descrittione di M. Lodouico Guicciardini patritio fiorentino, di tutti i Paesi Bassi, Anvers, 1567 ; Amsterdam, 1624, pour cette traduction française; ↩︎
- Concile de Trente : Décret sur l’invocation, la vénération et les reliques des saints et sur les saintes images, XXVe session, 3-4 décembre 1563. ↩︎
- Une forme majeure de contrepoint consiste à imiter une partie dans une autre. C’est ce qui se passe dans le canon, où la même mélodie se reproduit dans les différentes voix avec un décalage plus ou moins important. Cette imitation de la mélodie peut être réalisée avec les mêmes notes ou à l’octave supérieur ou inférieur, ou même à un intervalle différent. Cet art de l’imitation a été poussé à l’extrême par Guillaume Dufay et surtout par Jean Ockeghem puisqu’on trouve jusqu’à 36 voix dans un de ses motets. C’est, à ce niveau, un exercice de style théorique qui n’a pas un grand intérêt musical puisqu’à partir d’un certain nombre de voix, celles-ci se neutralisent et ne sont plus perçues par l’auditeur. Cet art sera ensuite développé par Josquin des Prés d’une manière plus élaborée et surtout plus esthétique. ↩︎
ARTKAREL AUDIO COMMENT : Leonardo’s splendid copy of his Last Supper in Tongerlo, Belgium

To listen to the audio from the pdf you can click on this link :
https://artkarel.com/artkarel-audio-guide-leonardos-splendid-copy-of-his-last-supper-in-tongerloo-belgium/


Leonardo’s Last Supper,
the splendor of the copy of Tongerlo
by Karel Vereycken
In 1495, Leonardo da Vinci, tasked by Ludovico Sforza, the duke of Milan, started painting his fresco The Last Supper, in the refectory of the Dominican Cloister of Milan. It took him three years. Taking a huge risk, the master tested an experimental technique by using an oily tempera paint on a dry chalk wall, rather than using the traditional fresco technique.
While Leonardo’s composition is fantastic, his technical experiment failed. Rapidly the paint started to flake off from a wet wall, with the image increasingly fading away. Today, before restoration, only 20 % of the original paint has survived.
The Italian restorer, the now deceased professor Madame Penin Brambilla, who spent 20 years restoring the original in Milan, stated that “If you want to taste the full splendor of the Last Supper, you have to see the life size copy painted before 1508 by Leonardo himself and a team of pupils, hanging in the Church of the Norbertine Abbey of Tongerlo, Belgium.”
That is where I stand right now. Since people are praying, I taped this audio in the adjacent building, where visitors can see an excellent documentary about the history of this copy.
I have discussed the content of this painting in an article many years ago and for reasons of time, I will not list here the series of dramatic accidents (fires, accidents, thefts) that mark the history of this copy once it was finished.
I will only will try to answer one question : who made this copy ?
Recent research has discovered crucial historical documents. The first indicates that the French King Louis XII, once his army took Milan, fell in love with Leonardo’s fresco. Consequently, he asked his engineers to take the entire wall and ship it to France ! Once the kings engineers showed him this was impossible, the only remaining option was to ask Leonardo to make a copy on canvas.
In fact, as soon as Leonardo finished his fresco, copies were made of it. Making copies of your own artistic production was not unusual at that time since by far the best way to get visibility for your works, especially before the printing industry flourished. Hence, Leonardo made or had copies made of several of his own works, including the Mona Lisa, the Virgin on the Rocks and Saint Anne and the Virgin.
About the copies of the Last Supper, the following:
–One was made by Marco d’Oggiono (1470-1549), one of Leonardo’s pupils. It is a lot smaller and hangs in the Musée de la Renaissance in Ecouen in France.
–Another one was made by another pupil, Giampietrino. It hangs today in the Royal Academy of the Arts in London which acquired it in the 19th century.
–But the copy bought in Antwerp in 1545 by the Abbey of Tongerlo is considered the most exact and most delicious. It’s origin is known, since it is mentioned in the inventory of the castle of Gaillon, which was property of cardinal Georges d’Amboise, archbishop of Rouen and minister of king Louis XII.
Technical features indicate that the copy (on hemp and not on linen) was made in Italy before 1508 by three pupils working under Leonardo’s direct, active personal leadership: Andrea Solario (1465-1524), Giampietrino (1495-1549) and Marco d’Oggiono. Each would have painted a particular group of apostles. For example, Gianpietrino would have painted five of them starting from the left.
The American professor Jean-Paul Isbouts, who examined the work with the most advanced state of the art technology, noted that while under-drawings exists for nearly the entire painting, they lack for the head of Christ and that of John the apostle, whose face is very feminine and reminds viewers of Leonardo’s “Virgin on the Rocks.” (Louvre, Paris).
With still other investigative techniques, the Russian Professor Vadim Parfenov of the University of Saint Petersburg, came to the conclusion that those faces (Christ and Saint John) were painted by a left-handed artist, most likely Leonardo who we know was left-handed.



All this new research blew my mind, since I thought it was a late copy and didn’t suspect to see Leonardo at work in producing copies himself of his own works.
Reflect for a second. Imagine Leonardo’s Milan fresco of his Last Supper totally disappearing by the failure of his technical experiment, a highly predictable outcome in that time. Humanity would have lost the entire achievement. Only a good copy, such as that of Tongerlo, would have preserved Leonardo’s genius for the next generations, and in a sense, it did. For example, the landscape in the background, only survives visually thanks to the Tongerloo copy !
So if you are a brilliant painter, feel free to produce handmade copies or have your pupils make them! It is a joy for all of us and hopefully for a long time!
Karel Vereycken wins Curator’s List award in Book Cover Contest

On July 8, 2026, Painter engraver Karel Vereycken was informed by the Circle Foundation for the Arts (CFA) that he won an award, « presented in recognition of your artwork’s ‘The Coincidence of Opposites’ outstanding aesthetic and technical quality, having been selected for the Curator’s List of favorite submissions in the Art IDEAL Book Cover Contest, June/July 2026, hosted by Circle Arts.«

Karel Vereycken gets honorable mention in Portrait art contest



On July 8, 2026, painter engraver Karel Vereycken was informed, that with his engraving Fisherman 2, he obtained an Honorable Mention Award in Teravarna’s « 13th Portrait » 2026 International Juried Art Competition.
Pêcheur flamand 3


Karel Vereycken’s work presented in Contemporary Art Curator Magazine

On June 16, the leading Contemporary Art Curator Magazine presented the art work and vision of Franco-Belgian Painter Engraver Karel Vereycken.
https://www.contemporaryartcuratormagazine.com/home-2/karel-vereycken-artist-spotlight
Karel Vereycken’s engraving « Coincidence of Opposites » wins Honorable Mention

On June 15, 2026, the Circle Foundation for the Arts (CFA) informed Franco-Belgian painter engraver Karel Vereycken about the results of the Artist of the Month’s contest. Vereycken had filed participation with his latest engraving, « The Coincidence of the Opposites »:
« Your work did stand out to me, for it’s remarkable aesthetic and originality, and you have been selected for an Honorable Mention. »

