Étiquette : copper

 

Jacob Fugger « The Rich », father of financial fascism

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Bribery and elections

In the « good old days » of the Roman Empire, things were so much simpler! Already in Athens but on a much larger scale in Rome, electoral bribery was big business. In the late Republic, lobbies coordinated schemes of bribery and extortion. Large-scale borrowing to raise money for bribes is even said to have created so much financial instability that it contributed to the 49–45 BC civil war. Roman generals, once they had systematically massacred and looted some distant colony and sold for hard cash their colonial loot, could simply buy the required number of votes, always decisive to elect an emperor or endorse a tyrant after a coup d’Etat. Legitimacy was always post-factum those days.

In Rome, the “elections” became an obscene farce to the point that they were eliminated. “A blessing from heaven”, said the statesman Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, rejoicing that “the hideous voting tablet, the crooked distribution of the seating places in the theater among the clients, the venal run, all of these are no more!”

The Holy Roman German Empire

Reviving such a degenerate and corrupt imperial system wasn’t a bright idea. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Roman emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe more than three centuries after the collapse of the ancient Western Roman Empire in 476 DC.

In 962 DC, when Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, he fashioned himself as Charlemagne’s successor, and inaugurated a continuous existence of the empire for over eight centuries. In theory the emperors were considered the primus inter pares (“first among equals”) of all Europe’s Catholic monarchs. In practice, the imperial office was traditionally elective by the mostly German prince-electors.

Just as the vote of the Roman Senate was necessary to “elect” a Roman Emperor, in the Middle Ages, a tiny group of prince-electors had the privilege of “electing” the “King of the Romans.” Once elected in that capacity, this elected king would then be crowned Emperor by the pope.

The status of prince-elector had great prestige. It was considered to be behind only the emperor, kings, and the highest dukes. The prince-electors held exclusive privileges that were not shared with other princes of the Empire, and they continued to hold their original titles alongside that of prince-electors.

In 1356, the Golden Bull, a decree carrying a golden seal, issued by the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg and Metz headed by the Emperor of that time, Charles IV, fixed the protocols and rules of the imperial power system. While limiting their power, the Golden Bull granted the great-electors the Privilegium de non appellando (“privilege of not appealing”), preventing their subjects from lodging an appeal to a higher Imperial court, and turning their territorial courts into courts of last resort.

However, imposing such a superstructure everywhere was no mean feat. With Jacques Cœur, Yolande d’Aragon and Louis XI, France increasingly asserted itself as a sovereign, anti-imperial nation-state.

Therefore, the Holy Roman Empire, by a decree adopted at the Diet of Cologne in 1512, became the “Holy Roman Empire of the Germanic Nation,” a name first used in a document in 1474. The adoption of this new name coincided with the loss of imperial territories in Italy and Burgundy to the south and west by the late XVth century, but also aimed to emphasize the new importance of the German Imperial Estates in ruling the Empire. Napoleon was supposedly the one who said the Holy Roman German Empire was triply misnamed and none of the three. It was “too debauched” to be holy, “too German” to be Roman and “too weak” to be an Empire.

In light of the object of this article, we will not expand here on this subject. Noteworthy nevertheless, the fact that German Nazi Party propaganda, as early as 1923, would identify the Holy Roman Empire of the Germanic Nation as the « First » Reich (Reich meaning empire), with the German Empire as the « Second » Reich and what would eventually become Nazi Germany as the « Third » Reich.

Hitler had a soft spot for Fugger’s hometown Augsburg and wanted to make it the “City of German Businessmen”. To honor the Fugger family, he wanted to convert their Palace into a huge trade museum. To break the Fuhrer’s moral, the building got severely bombed in February 1942.

The Prince Electors

By the XVIth Century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of 1,800 semi-independent states spread across Central Europe and Northern Italy. In a nod to the ancient Germanic tradition of electing kings, the medieval emperors of this sprawling patchwork of disparate territories were elected

What we do know is that, from the Golden Bull of 1356 onward, the emperor was elected in Frankfurt by an “electoral college” of seven “Prince-electors” (Kurfürst in German):

  • the archbishop of Mainz, arch-chancellor of Germany;
  • the archbishop of Trier, arch-chancellor of Gallia (France);
  • the archbishop of Cologne, arch-chancellor of Italy;
  • the duke of Saxony;
  • the count palatine of the Rhine;
  • the margrave of Brandenburg;
  • and the king of Bohemia.

Of course, to obtain the vote of these great electors, candidates had to deliver oral and in advance written promises and engagements, and especially, on (and under) the table, offer privileges, power, money and more.

Hence, the most difficult endeavor for any aspiring candidate, was to raise the bribery money to buy the votes. As a result, the very existence and survival of the Holy Roman German Empire, depended nearly entirely on the existence, survival and especially goodwill of a financial oligarchy of wealthy merchant banking families willing to lend the money to the bribers. Just as a handful of giant banks are controlling western nations today by buying their emissions of state bonds required to bail-out and refinance permanent but growing debt bubbles, the banking monopolies of those days became very rapidly too-big-to-fail and too-big-to-jail.

The financial power and influence of the Bardi, Peruzzi and other Medici bankers, who, by ruining the European farmers plunged Europe in great famine creating the conditions for the XIVth Century’s “Black Death” wiping out between 30 and 50 percent of the European population, is no secret and has been aptly documented by a friend of mine, the American financial analyst, Paul Gallagher.

Fucker Advenit

Augsbourg.

Here, we’ll focus on the activities of two German banking families who dominated the world in the early XVIth century: the Fuggers and the Welsers of Augsburg.

Unlike the Welsers, and old patrician family about we will say more later, the Fugger’s’ success story begins in 1367, when “master weaver” Hans Fugger (1348-1409) moved from his village of Graben to the “free imperial city” of Augsburg, a four-hour walk away. The Augsburg tax register reads “Fucker Advenit” (Fugger has arrived). In 1385, Hans was elected to the leadership of the weavers’ guild, which gave him a seat on the city’s Grand Council.

Augsburg, like other free and imperial cities, was not subject to the authority of any prince, but only to that of the emperor himself. The city was represented at the Imperial Diet, controlled its own trade and allowed little outside interference.

German merchants.

In Renaissance Germany, few cities matched Augsburg’s energy and effervescence. Markets overflowed with everything from ostrich eggs to saints’ skulls. Ladies brought falcons to church. Hungarian cow-boys drove cattle through the streets. If the emperor came to town, knights jousted in the squares. If a murderer was arrested in the morning, he was hanged in the afternoon for all to see. Beer flowed as freely in the public baths as it did in the taverns. The city not only authorized prostitution, it also maintained brothels

Initially, the Fugger’s commercial profile was very traditional: fabrics made by local weavers were bought and sold at fairs in Frankfurt, Cologne and, over the Alps, Venice. For a weaver like Hans Fugger, this was the “ideal time” to come to Augsburg. An exciting innovation was taking hold throughout Europe: fustian, a new type of fabric perhaps named after the Egyptian town of Fustat, near Cairo, which manufactured this material before its production spread to Italy, southern Germany and France.

Medieval fustian was a sturdy canvas or twill fabric with a cotton weft and a linen, silk or hemp warp, one side of which was lightly woolen. Lighter than wool, it became very much in demand, particularly for a new invention: underwear. While linen and hemp could be grown almost anywhere, in the late Middle Ages, cotton came from the Mediterranean region, from Syria, Egypt, Anatolia and Cyprus, and entered Europe via Venice.

From Jacob the Elder to « Fugger Bros »


In Augsburg, Hans had two children: Jacob, known as “Jacob the Elder” (1398-1469) and Andreas Fugger (1394-1457). The two sons had different and opposing investment strategies. While Andreas went bankrupt, Jacob the Elder cautiously expanded his business.

After Jacob the Elder’s death in 1469, his eldest son Ulrich Fugger (1441-1510), with the help of his younger brother Georg Fugger (1453-1506), took over the management of the company.

Gradually, profits were invested in far more profitable activities: precious stones, goldsmithery, jewelry and religious relics such as martyrs’ bones and fragments of the cross; spices (sugar, salt, pepper, saffron, cinnamon, alum); medicinal plants and herbs and, above all, metals and mines (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, mercury) which, as collateral enabled the expansion of credit and monetary issuance.

The Fugger forged close personal and professional ties with the aristocracy. They married into some of the most powerful families in Europe – in particular, the Thurzos of Austria. Their activities spread throughout central and northern Europe, Italy and Spain, with branches in Nuremberg, Leipzig, Hamburg, Lübeck, Frankfurt, Mainz and Cologne, Krakow, Danzig, Breslau and Budapest, Venice, Milan, Rome and Naples, Antwerp and Amsterdam, Madrid, Seville and Lisbon.

Jacob Fugger « The Rich »

Jacob Fugger « The Rich ».

In 1473, another brother, the youngest of the three, Jacob Fugger (later known as “the Rich”) (1459-1525), aged 14 and originally destined for an ecclesiastical career, was sent to Venice, then “the world’s most trading city”. There, he was trained in commerce and book accounting. Jacob returned to Augsburg in 1486 with such admiration for Venice that he liked to be called “Jacobo” and never let go of his Venetian gold beret. Later, with a certain sense of irony, he called the accounting techniques he learned in Venice “The art of enrichment”. The humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam seems to have wanted to respond to him in his colloquium “The friend of lies and the friend of truth”.

The importance of information

In Venice, Jacob assimilated Venetian (Roman Empire) methods to succeed:

  • organize a private intelligence service;
  • impose a monopoly on strategic goods and products;
  • alternate between intelligent corruption and blackmail;
  • push the world to the brink of bankruptcy to make bankers such as Fugger indispensable.

Jacob Fugger recognized the importance of information. To be successful, he has to know what’s going on in the seaports and trading centers. Eager to gain every possible business advantage, Fugger set up a private mail courier designed to transmit news — such as “deaths and results of battles” — exclusively to him, so that he would have it before anyone else, especially before the emperor.

Jacob the Elder and his wife. Rich in terms of money, poor of love and no children.
Wealth and Power paying tribute to Jacob Fugger.

Jacob Fugger financed any project, person or operation that meets his long-term objectives. But always under strict conditions set by him, and always to impose himself on others. The prevailing principle was do ut des, in other words, “I give, I can receive”. In exchange for every loan, collateral such as metal production, mining concessions, state financial inflows, commercial and social privileges, tax and customs exemptions, and high positions in key institutions, were demanded. And with the increase in the sums advanced, the increase in the quid pro quos demanded by Fugger.

If “modern” capitalism is the dictatorship of private monopolies at the expense of free competition, it’s safe to say that he truly is its founder.

The most important thing he learned in Venice? To always be prepared to sacrifice short-term financial gains, and even to offer financial profits to his victims, in order to demonstrate his solvency and ensure his long-term political control. In the absence of national or public banks, popes, princes, dukes and emperors depended heavily, if not entirely, on an oligopoly of private bankers. When an Austrian emperor, whose banker he was, wanted to impose a universal tax, Fugger sank the project because it reduced his dependence on bankers!

A Venetian ambassador, discovering that Jacob had learned his trade in Venice, confessed:

Europe seen through the eyes of Fugger with the axis Venice (north), Augsburg, Nuremberg, Antwerpen (south).

Antwerp and Venice

The three Fugger brothers were aware of the key role played by Venice and Antwerp in the copper trade, with Augsburg, along with Nuremberg, right in the middle of the trade corridor connecting them.

Antwerp
1503 marked the beginning of the Portuguese activities of the House of Fugger in Antwerp, and in 1508 the Portuguese made Antwerp the base of their colonial trade.

Antwerp stock exchange.

In 1515, Antwerp established Europe’s first stock exchange, a model for London (1571) and Amsterdam (1611). Copper, pepper and debts were traded. The purchase of a cargo of pepper was settled ¾ in gold, ¼ in copper. First Venice, then Portugal and Spain, depended on Fugger for silver and copper.

Venice
The firm exported copper and silver from Tyrol to Venice, and imported luxury goods, fine textiles, cotton and, above all, Indian and Oriental spices from Venice. After much effort, on November 30, 1489, the Venetian Council of State confirmed the Fugger’s permanent possession of their room in the “Fondaco dei Tedeschi”, the German merchants’ warehouse on the Grand Canal, on whose upkeep and decoration they spent considerable sums.

“Fondaco dei Tedeschi”, the German merchants’ warehouse on the Grand Canal.

At the beginning of the XVIth century, Nuremberg merchants shared with Augsburg merchants the monopoly of what was the most important German trading post. During the meals taken in common, required by the rules, they officially presided over the table with their colleagues from Cologne, Basel, Strasbourg, Frankfurt and Lübeck.

Well-known merchant families traded in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, including the Imhoff, Koler, Kref, Mendel and Paumgartner families from Nuremberg, and the Fugger and Höchstetter families from Augsburg. Merchants mainly imported spices from Venice: saffron, pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon and sugar.

“Fondaco dei Tedeschi”, interior court.

The Nuremberg stock exchange served as a commercial link between Italy and other European economic centers. Foods known and appreciated in the Mediterranean region, such as olive oil, almonds, figs, lemons and oranges, jams and wines like Malvasia and Chierchel found their way from the Adriatic Sea to Nuremberg.

Other valuable products included corals, pearls, precious stones, Murano glassware and textiles such as silk fabrics, cotton and damask sheets, velvet, brocade, gold thread, camelot and bocassin. Paper and books completed the list.

In the years that followed, “Ulrich Fugger & Brothers” dealt in Venetian bills of exchange with the Frankfurt company Blum, and sources frequently mention the company’s branch on the Rialto as an outlet for copper and silver, a center for the purchase of luxury goods and a clearing station for transfers to the Roman curia.

The World changes

Fugger’s involvement in the international metal trade: silver (dark gray); copper (red); lead (blue) and mercury (olive green).

In 1498, six years after Christopher Columbus’s voyage to America, Vasco da Gama (1460-1524) was the first European to find the route to India, bypassing Africa. This enabled him to set up Calicut, the first Portuguese trading post in India. The opening of this sea route to the East Indies by the Portuguese deprived the Mediterranean trade routes, and thus South Germany, of much of their importance. Geographically, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands gained the upper hand.

Jacob Fugger, always in the know before anyone else, decided to adapt to the new realities and relocated his colonial business from Venice to Lisbon and Antwerp. He took advantage of the opportunity to open up new markets such as England, without abandoning markets such as Italy. He took part in the spice trade and opened a factory in Lisbon in 1503. He was authorized to ship pepper, other spices and luxury goods such as pearls and precious stones via Lisbon.

Along with other German and Italian trading houses, Fugger contributed to a fleet of 22 Portuguese ships led by the Portuguese Francisco de Almeida (1450-1510), which sailed to India in 1505 and returned in 1506. Although a third of the imported goods had to be sold to the King of Portugal, the operation remained profitable. Impressed by the financial returns, the King of Portugal made the spice trade a royal monopoly, excluding all foreign participation, in order to reap the full benefits. However, the Portuguese still depended heavily on the copper supplied by Fugger, a key product for trade with India.

Fugger, tricks and tactics

Let’s summarize the “genius” and some of the tricks that enabled Jacob Fugger to become “the rich” at the expense of the rest of humanity.

1. Bail me out, baby

In 1494, the Fugger brothers founded a trading company with a capital of 54,385 florins, a sum that doubled two years later when, in 1496, Jacob persuaded Cardinal Melchior von Meckau (1440-1509), Prince-Bishop of Brixen (today’s Bressanone in the Italian Tyrol), to join the company as a “silent partner” in the expansion of mining activities in Upper Hungary. In total secrecy, and without the knowledge of his ecclesiastical chapter, the prince-Bishop invested 150,000 florins in the Fugger company in exchange for a 5% annual dividend. While such “discreet transactions” were quite common among the Medici, profiting from interest rates remained a sin for the church. When the prince-bishop died in Rome in 1509, this investment scheme was discovered. The pope, the bishopric of Brixen and the Meckau family, all claiming the inheritance, demanded immediate repayment of the sum, which would have led to Jacob Fugger’s insolvency. It was this situation that prompted Emperor Maximilian I to intervene and help his banker. Fugger came up with the formula.

Provided he helped Pope Julius II in a small war against the Republic of Venice, only the Hapsburg monarch was recognized as Cardinal Melchior von Meckau’s legitimate heir. The inheritance could now be settled by paying off outstanding debts. Fugger was also required to deliver jewels as compensation to the Pope. In exchange for his support, however, Maximilian I demanded continued financial backing for his ongoing military and political campaigns. A way of telling the Fugger: “I’m saving you today, but I’m counting on you to save me tomorrow…”.

2. Buy me a pope and the Vatican, baby

Raimondi, Marcantonio, Pope Julius II.

In 1503, Jacob Fugger contributed 4,000 ducats (5,600 florins) to the papal campaign of Julius II and greased the cardinals’ palms to get this “warrior pope” elected. To protect himself and the Vatican, Julius II requested 200 Swiss mercenaries. In September 1505, the first contingent of Swiss Guards set out for Rome. On foot and in the harshness of winter, they marched south, crossed the St. Gotthard Pass and received their pay from the banker… Jacob Fugger.

Julius showed his gratitude by awarding Fugger the contract to mint the papal currency. Between 1508 and 1524, the Fugger leased the Roman mint, the Zecca, manufacturing 66 types of coins for four different popes.

3. Business first, baby

In 1509, Venice was attacked by the armies of the League of Cambrai, an alliance of powerful European forces determined to break Venice’s monopoly over European trade. The conflict disrupted the Fuggers’ land and sea trade. The loans granted by the Fugger to Maximilian (a member of the League of Cambrai) were guaranteed by the copper from the Tyrol exported via Venice… The Fugger’s sided with Venice without falling out with a happy Maximilian.

4. Buy me a hitman, baby

Fugger had rivals who hated him. Among them, the Gossembrot brothers. Sigmund Gossembrot was the mayor of Augsburg. His brother and business partner, George, was Maximilian’s treasury secretary. They wanted mining revenues to be invested in the real economy, and advised the emperor to break with the Fugger. Both brothers died in 1502 after eating black pudding. The great Fugger historian Gotried von Pölnitz, who has spent more time in the archives than anyone else, wonders whether the Fugger ordered the assassination. Let’s just say that absence of proof is not proof of absence.

5. Your mine is mine, baby

Copper mining in the XVIth century.

The time between 1480 and 1560 was the “century of the metallurgical process.” Gold, silver and copper could now be separated economically. Demand for the necessary mercury for the separation process grew rapidly. Jacob, aware of the potential financial gains it offered, went from textile trade to spice trade and then into mining.

Sigismund Archduke of Austria.

Therefore, he headed to Innsbruck, currently Austria. But the mines were owned by Sigismund Archduke of Austria (1427-1496), a member of the Habsburg family and cousin of the emperor Frederick.

The good news for Jacob Fugger is that Sigismund was a big spender. Not for his subjects, but for his own amusement. One lavish party sees a dwarf emerge from a cake to wrestle a giant.

As a result, Sigismund was constantly in debt. When he ran out of money, Sigismund sold the production from his silver mine at knock-down prices to a group of bankers. To the Genoese banking family Antonio de Cavallis, for example. To get into the game, Fugger lends the Archduke 3,000 florins and receives 1,000 pounds of silver metal at 8 florins per pound, which he later sells for 12. A paltry sum compared with those lent by others, but a key move that opened his relations with Sigismund and above all with the nascent Habsburg dynasty.

In 1487, after a military skirmish with the more powerful Venice for control of the Tyrolean silver mines, Sigismund’s financial irresponsibility made him persona non grata with the big bankers. In despair, he turned to Fugger. Fugger mobilized the family fortune to raise the money the archduke demanded. An ideal situation for the banker. Of course, the loan was secured and subject to strict conditions. Sigismund was forbidden to repay it with silver metal from his mines, and had to cede control of his treasury to Fugger. If Sigmund repays him, Fugger walks away with a fortune. But, given Sigmund’s track record, the chance of him repaying is nil. Ignoring the terms of the loan, most of the other bankers are convinced that Fugger will go bankrupt. And indeed, Sigismund defaulted, just as Fugger… had predicted. However, as stipulated in the contract, Fugger seized “the mother of all silver mines”, the one in the Tyrol. By advancing a little cash, he gets his hands on a giant silver mine.

6. Buy my « Fugger Bonds », baby

Fuggerhaus, Augsbourg.

The way Fugger banking worked was that Fugger lent to the emperor (or another customer) and re-financed the loan on the market (at lower interest rates) by selling so-called “Fugger bonds” to other investors. The Fugger bonds were much sought after investments as the Fugger were regarded as “safe debtors”. Thus, the Fugger used their own superior credit standing in the market to secure financing for their customers whose credit rating was not as well regarded. The idea was – provided the emperor and the other customers honored their commitments – they would make a profit from the difference in interest between the loans the Fugger extended and the interest payable on the Fugger bonds.

7. Buy me an Emperor, baby

Hapsburg Emperor Maximilian I of Austria.

Sigismund was soon eclipsed by emperor Frederick IIIrd’s son, Maximilian of Austria (1459-1519), who had arranged to take power if Sigismund did not pay back money he owed him. (Fugger could have lent Sigismund the money to keep him in power but decided he’d prefer Maximilian in the position.)

Maximilian was elected “King of the Romans” in 1486 and ruled as the Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 till his death in 1519. Jacob Fugger supported Maximilian I of Habsburg in his accession to the throne by paying 800,000 florins. Laying the foundation for the family’s widely distributed landholdings, this time Fugger, as collateral, didn’t want silver, but land. So he acquired the countships of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn from Maximilian I in 1507 and in 1514, the emperor made him a count.

Unsurprisingly, Maximilian’s military conquests coincided with Jacob’s plans for mining expansion. Fugger purchased valuable land with the profits from the silver mines he had obtained from Sigismund, and then financed Maximilian’s army to retake Vienna in 1490. The emperor also seized Hungary, a region rich in copper.

Albrecht Dürer, The big canon.

A “copper belt” stretched along the Carpathian Mountains through Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. Fugger modernizes the country’s mines by introducing hydraulic power and tunnels. Jacob’s aim was to establish a monopoly on this strategic raw material, copper ore. Along with tin, copper is used in the manufacture of bronze, a strategic metal for weapons production. Fugger opened foundries in Hohenkirchen and Fuggerau (the family’s namesake in Carinthia, today in Austria), where he produced cannons directly.

8. Sell me indulgences, baby

Indulgence trading: on the left, a Fugger clerk, in the center the Dominican preacher Tetzel and on the right, on horseback, the archbishop of Mainz, Albrecht of Brandenburg.

In 1514, the position of Archbishop of Mainz became available. As we have seen, this was the most powerful position in Germany, with the exception of that of the emperor. Such positions require remuneration. Albrecht of Brandenburg (1490-1545), whose family, the Hohenzollerns, ruled a large part of the country, wanted the post. Albrecht was already a powerful man: he held several other ecclesiastical offices. But even he couldn’t afford to pay such high fees. So, he borrowed the necessary sum from the Fugger, in return for interest, which the convention of the time described as a fee for “trouble, danger and expense”.

Pope Leo X, having squandered the papal treasury on his coronation and organized parties where prostitutes looked after the cardinals, asked for 34,000 florins to grant Albrecht the title – roughly equivalent to $4.8 million today – and Fugger deposited the money directly into the pope’s personal account.

All that remained was to pay back the Fugger. Albrecht had a plan. He obtained from Pope Leo X the right to administer the recently announced “jubilee indulgences”. Indulgences were contracts sold by the Church to forgive sins, allowing believers to buy their way out of purgatory and into heaven.

But to fleece the sheep, as with any good scam, a “cover” or “narrative” was required. The motive, concocted by Julius II, was credible, claiming that St. Peter’s Basilica needed urgent and costly renovation.

Johann Tetzel.

In charge of the sale was a “peddler of indulgences”, the Dominican Johann Tetzel, who “carried Bibles, crosses and a large wooden box with […] an image of Satan on top”, and told the faithful that his indulgences “canceled all sins”. He even proposed a “progressive scale”, with the wealthy believers paying 25 florins and ordinary workers just one. Tetzel is quoted as saying: “When the money rattles in the box, the soul jumps out of purgatory”.

On the ground, in every church, Fugger clerks worked on site to collect the money, half of which went to the Pope and half to Fugger. At the same time, Fugger obtained a monopoly on the transfer of the funds obtained from the sale of indulgences between Germany and Rome.

If the archbishop was at the mercy of the Fugger, so too was Pope Leo X, who, to repay his debt, collected money through “simonies”, i.e. selling high ecclesiastical offices to princes. Between 1495 and 1520, 88 of the 110 bishoprics in Germany, Hungary, Poland and Scandinavia were appointed by Rome in exchange for money transfers centralized by Fugger. In this way, Fugger became “God’s banker, Rome’s chief financier”.

9. Buy me Martin Luther, baby

Since the IIIrd century, the Catholic Church asserted that God can be indulgent, granting total or partial remission of the penalty incurred following forgiveness of a sin. However, the indulgence obtained in return for an act of piety (pilgrimage, prayer, mortification, donation), notably in order to shorten a deceased person’s passage through purgatory, over time, turned into a lucrative business, used by Urban II to recruit enthusiastic faithful to the First Crusade.

In the XVIth century, it was this trade in indulgences that led to serious unrest and turmoil within the Church. Described as superstition by Erasmus in his “In Praise of Folly”, the denunciation of the indulgence trade was the very subject of Luther’s ninety-five arguments, the manifesto he nailed on the door of the Castle Church of Wittenberg and would lead the Church to division and to the Protestant Reformation. Refusing to travel to Rome to answer charges of heresy and of challenging the Pope’s authority, Luther agreed to present himself in Augsburg in 1518 to the papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan. The latter urged Luther to retract or reconsider his statements (“revoca!”).

Although Luther had denounced Fugger by name for his central role in the indulgence swindle, he agreed to be interrogated in the central office of the bank that organized the crime he denounced!

Luther seems to have been aware that, verbal accusations aside, the Fuggers would protect and promote him rather than face a much more reasonable call for reform from Erasmus and his followers. While he could have been arrested and burned at the stake as some demanded, Luther showed up, refused to backtrack on his statements and left unscathed.

10. Buy them poverty, baby

In the XVIth century, prices increased consistently throughout Western Europe, and by the end of the century prices reached levels three to four times higher than at the beginning. Recently historians have grown dissatisfied with monetary explanations of the sixteenth-century price rise. They have realized that prices in many countries began to rise before much New World gold and silver entered Spain, let alone left it, and that probable treasure-flows bear little relation to price movements, including in Spain itself.

In reality, in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century European populations began to expand again, recovering from that long era of contraction initiated by the Black Death of 1348. Growing populations produced rising demands for food, drink, cheap clothing, shelter, firewood, etc., all ultimately products of the land. Farmers found it difficult to increase their output of these things: food prices, land values, industrial costs, all rose. Such pressures are now seen as an important underlying cause of this inflation, though few would deny that it was stimulated at times by governments manipulating the currency, borrowing heavily, and fighting wars.

The “Age of the Fuggers” was an age where money was invested in more money and financial speculation. The real economy was looted by taxes and wars.

The dynamic created by the collapse of the living standards, taxes and price inflation for most of the people and the public exposure of corruption of both the Church and the aristocracy, set the scene for riots in many cities, the German “Peasant war,” an insurrection of weavers, craftsmen and even miners, ending with the “Revolt of the Netherlands” and centuries of bloody “religious” wars that only terminated with the “funeral” of the Empire by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

11. Buy them social housing, baby

Fuggerei.

Jacob Fugger’s initiative, in 1516, to start building the Fuggerei, a social housing project for a hundred working families in Augsburg, rather unique for the day, came as “too little and too late,” when the firm’s image became under increasing attacks. The Fuggerei survived as a monument to honor the Fugger. The rent remained unchanged, it still is one Rhenish gulden per year (equivalent to 0.88 euros), three daily prayers for the current owners of the Fuggerei, and the obligation to work a part-time job in the community. The conditions to live there, akin to the Harz4 measures, remain the same as they were 500 years ago: one must have lived at least two years in Augsburg, be of the Catholic faith and have become indigent without debt. The five gates are still locked every day at 10 PM.

12. Buy me rates worth an interest, baby

Pope Leon X.

“You shall not charge interest.” In 1215 Pope Innocent III explicitly confirmed the prohibition on interest and usury decreed in the Bible. The line from Luke 6:35, “Lend and expect nothing in return,” was taken by the Church to mean an outright ban on usury, defined as the demand for any interest at all. Even savings accounts were considered sinful. Not Jacob Fugger’s ideal scenario. To change this, Fugger hired a renowned theologian Johannes Eck (1494-1554) of Ingolstadt to argue his case. Fugger conducted a full-on public relations campaign, including setting up debates on the issue, and wrote an impassioned letter to Pope Leo.

As a result, Leo issued a decree proclaiming that charging interest was usury only if the loan was made “without labor, cost or risk” — which of course no loan ever really is. More than a millennium after Aristotle, Pope Leo X found that risk and labor involved with safeguarding capital made money lending “a living thing.” As long as a loan involved labor, cost, or risk, it was in the clear. This opened a flood of church-legal lending: Fugger’s lobbying paid off with a fortune. Fugger persuaded the Church to permit an interest of 5% – and he was reasonably successful: charging interest was not allowed, but it wasn’t punished either.

Thanks to Leon X, Fugger was now able to attract cash by offering depositors a 5% return. As for loans, according to the Tyrolean Council’s report, while other bankers were lending Maximilian at a rate of 10%, the rate charged by Fugger, justified by “the risk”, was over 50%! Charles V, in the 1520s, had to borrow at 18%, and even at 49% between 1553 and 1556. Meanwhile, Fugger’s equity, which in 1511 amounted to 196,791 florins, rose in 1527, two years after Jacob’s death, to 2,021,202 florins, for a total profit of 1,824,411 florins, or 927% increase, which represents, on average, an annual increase of 54.5%.

Quinten Matsys, The usurers, 1520, Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome.

All this is presented today, not as usury, but as a “great advance” anticipating modern wealth and asset management practices…

Fugger “broke the back of the Hanseatic Ligue” and “roused commerce from its medieval slumber by persuading the pope to lift the ban on moneylending. He helped save free enterprise from an early grave by financing the army that won the German Peasants War, the first great clash between capitalism and communism,” writes Greg Steinmetz, historian and former Wall Street Journal correspondent.

Jewish ghetto in Venice, 1906.

13. Buy me an Austro-Hungarian empire, baby

When Turkey invaded Hungary in 1514, Fugger was gravely concerned about the value of his Hungarian copper mines, his most profitable properties. After diplomatic efforts failed, Fugger gave Maximilian an ultimatum — either strike a deal with Hungary or forget about more loans. The threat worked. Maximilian negotiated a marriage alliance that left Hungary in Hapsburg hands, leading to “redrawing the map of Europe by creating the giant political tinderbox known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Fugger needed a Hapsburg seizure of Hungary to protect his holdings.

14. Buy me a second emperor, baby

Emperor Charles V.

When Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, died in 1519, he owed Jacob Fugger around 350,000 guilders. To avoid a default on this investment, Fugger organized a banker’s rally to gather all the bribery money allowing Maximilian’s grandson, Charles V, buying the throne.

If another candidate had been elected emperor, like King Francis I of France who suddenly tried to enter the scene, and would certainly have been reluctant to pay Maximilian’s debts to Fugger, the latter would have sunk into bankruptcy.

This situation reminds the modus operandi of JP Morgan, after the 1897 US banking crash and the banking panic of 1907. The “Napoleon of Wall Street,” afraid of a revival of a real national bank in the tradition of Alexander Hamilton, first gathered all the funds required to bail out his failing competitors, and then set up the Federal Reserve system in 1913, a private syndicate of bankers in charge of preventing the government of interfering in their lucrative business

Hence, Jacob Fugger, in direct liaison with Margaret of Austria, who bought into the scheme because of her worries about peace in Europe, in a totally centralized way, gathered the money for each elector, using the occasion to bolster dramatically his monopolistic positions, especially over his competitors such as the Welsers and the rising port of Antwerp.

According to the French historian Jules Michelet (1798-1874), Jacob Fugger energetically imposed three preconditions:

  1. The Garibaldi of Genoa, the Welsers of Germany and other bankers, could only partake in this scheme by making down-payments to Fugger and could only lend money [to Charles] through his intermediary;
  2. Fugger obtained promissory notes from the cities of Antwerp and Mechelen as collateral, paid for out of Zeeland tolls;
  3. Fugger got the city of Augsburg to forbid lending to the French. He requested Marguerite of Austria (the regent) to forbid the people of Antwerp from exchanging money in Germany for anyone.” (handing over de facto that lucrative business to the Augsburg bankers only…)
Hans Holbein the Younger, The Rich Man, 1526. When he died, death stole his money! Fugger “the Rich” died in 1525.

Now, as said before, people mistakenly think that Jacob “the Rich”, was “very rich.” Of course he was: today, he is considered to be one of the wealthiest people ever to have lived, with a GDP-adjusted net worth of over $400 billion, and approximately 2% of the entire GDP of Europe at the time, more than twice the fortune of Bill Gates.

If this was true or not and how wealthy he really was we will never know. But if you look at the capital declared by the Fugger brothers to the Augsburg tax authorities, it dwarfs by far the giant amounts being lent.

According to Fugger historian Mark Häberlein, Jacob anticipated modern day tax avoidance tricks by striking a deal with the Augsburg tax authorities in 1516. In exchange for an annual lump sum, the family’s true wealth… would not be disclosed. One of the reasons of course is that, just as BlackRock today, Fugger was a “wealth manager”, promising a return on investment of 5 percent while pocketing 14.5 percent himself… Cardinals and other fortunes would secretly invest in Fugger for his juicy returns.

Hence, it is safe to say that Fugger was very rich… of debts. And just as the IMF and a handful of mammoth banks today, by bailing out their clients with fictitious money, the Fuggers were doing nothing else than bailing out themselves and increasing their capacity to keep doing so. No structural reform on the table, only a liquidity crisis? Sounds familiar!

Charles’ unanimous selection by the Electors required exorbitant bribes, to the tune of 851,585 guilders, to smooth the way. Jacob Fugger put in 543,385 guilders, around two thirds of the sum. For the first time, the only collateral was Charles himself, ruling over most of the world and America.

It would take an entire book or a documentary to detail the amazing scope of bribes deployed for Charles’ imperial election, a well-documented event.

Just some excerpts from a detailed account:

15. Buy me zero regulation, baby

In 1523, under pressure from public opinion growing angry against the merchant houses of Augsburg, foremost of them the Fugger, the fiscal arm of the imperial Council of Regency brought an indictment against them. Some even brought up the idea of restricting trading capital of individual firms to 50,000 florins and limiting the number or their branches to three.

Acutely aware that such regulations would ruin him, Jacob Fugger, in panic, on April 24, 1523, wrote a short message to the Emperor Charles V, remembering his Majesty of his dependence on the good health of the Fugger bank accounts:

Charles Vth realized that the debt was not the issue of the message and immediately wrote to his brother Ferdinand, asking him to take measures to prevent the anti-monopoly trial. The imperial fiscal authorities were ordered to drop the proceedings. For Fugger and the other great merchants, the storm had passed.

16. Buy me Spain, baby

Of course, Charles V didn’t had a dime to pay back the giant Fugger loan that got him elected! Little by little, Fugger obtained his rights to continue mining metals – silver and copper – in the Tyrol, validated. But he got more, first in Spain itself and, quite logically, in the territories newly conquered by Spain in America.

17. Buy me America, baby

Firstly, to raise funds, Charles leased the income of the main territories of the three great Spanish orders of chivalry, known as Maestrazgos, for which the Fugger paid 135,000 ducats a year but got much more than what he spent for the lease.

Between 1528 and 1537, the Maestrazgos were administered by the Welsers of Augsburg and a group of merchants led by the Spanish head of the postal service Maffeo de Taxis and the Genoese banker Giovanni Battista Grimaldi. But after 1537, the Fugger took over again. The lease contract was very attractive for two reasons: first it allowed the leaseholders to export grain surpluses from these estates and second, it included the mercury mines of Alamadén, a crucial element both for the production of mirror glass, the processing of gold and medical applications.

Now, as the Fugger depended on gold and silver shipments from America to recover their loans to the Spanish crown, it appeared logical for them to set their eyes on the New World, as well.

18. Buy me Venezuela, baby

Let us now enter the Welsers whose history can be traced back to the XIIIth century, when its members held official positions in the city of Augsburg. Later, the family became widely known as prominent merchants. During the XVth century, when the brothers Bartholomew and Lucas Welser carried on an extensive trade with the Levant and elsewhere, they had branches in the principal trading centers of southern Germany and Italy, and also in Antwerp, London, and Lisbon. In the XVth and XVIth centuries, branches of the family settled at Nuremberg and in Austria.

As a reward for their financial contributions to his election in 1519, second in importance to Fugger but quite massive, King Charles V, unable to reimburse, provided the Welsers with privileges within the African slave trade and conquests of the Americas.

The Welser Family was offered the opportunity to participate in the conquest of the Americas in the early to mid-1500s. As fixed in the Contract of Madrid (1528), also known as the “Welser Contracts”, the merchants were guaranteed the privilege to carry out so-called “entradas” (expeditions) to conquer and exploit large parts of the territories that now belong to Venezuela and Colombia. The Welsers nourished fantasies about fabulous riches fueled by the discovery of golden treasures and are said to have created the myth of “El Dorado” (the city of gold).

Account of a German colonial expedition.

The Welsers started their operations by opening an office on the Portuguese island of Madeira and acquiring a sugar plantation on the Canary Islands. Then they expanded to San Domingo, today’s Haiti. The Welser’s hold of the slave trade in the Caribbean began in 1523, five years before the Contract of Madrid, as they had begun their own sugar production on the Island.

Included in the Contract of Madrid, the right to exploit a huge part of the territory of today’s Venezuela (Klein Venedig, Little Venice), a country they themselves called “Welserland”. They also obtained the right to ship 4,000 African slaves to work in the sugar plantations. While Spain would grant capital, horses and arms to Spanish conquistadors, the Welser would only lend them the money that allowed them to buy, exclusively from them, the means of running their operations.

Welsers exploring Venezuela.

Poor German miners went to Venezuela and got rapidly into huge debt, a situation which exacerbated their rapacity and worsened the way they treated the slaves. From 1528 to 1556, seven expeditions led to the plunder and destruction of local civilizations. Things became so ugly that in 1546, Spain revoked the contract, also because they knew the Welsers also served Lutheran clients in Germany.

Bartholomeus Welser’s son, Bartholomeus VI Welser, together with Philipp von Hutten were arrested and beheaded in El Tocuyo by local Spanish Governor Juan de Carvajal in 1546. Some years later, the abdication of Charles V in 1556 meant the definitive end of the Welser’s attempt to re-assert their concession by legal means.

19. Buy me Peru and Chile, baby

Unlike the Welser family, Jacob Fugger’s participation in overseas trade was cautious and conservative, and the only other operation of this kind he invested in, was a failed 1525 trade expedition to the Maluku Islands led by the Spaniard Garcia de Loaisa (1490-1526).

For Spain, the idea was to gain access to Indonesia via America, escaping Portuguese control over the spice road. Jacob the Rich died in December of that year and his nephew Anton Fugger (1493-1560) took over the strategic management of the firm.

And the did go on. The Fugger’s relations with the Spanish Crown reached a climax in 1530 with the loan of 1.5 million ducats from the Fugger for the election of Ferdinand as “Roman King”. It was in this context that the Fugger agent Veit Hörl obtained as collateral from Spain the right to conquer and colonize the western coastal region of South America, from Chincha to the Straits of Magellan. This region included present-day southern Peru and all of Chile. Things however got foggy and for unknown reasons, Charles V, who in principle agreed with the deal failed to ratify the agreement. Considering that the Welser’s Venezuela project degenerated into a mere slave-raiding and booty enterprise and ended in substantial losses, Anton Fugger, who thought financial returns were too low, abandoned the undertaking.

20. By me a couple of slaves, baby

Manillas.

Copper from the Fugger mines was used for cannons on ships but also ended up in the production of horse-shoe shaped “manillas”. Manillas, derived from the Latin for hand or bracelet, were a means of exchange used by Britain, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France and Denmark to trade with west Africa in gold and ivory, as well as enslaved people. The metals preferred were originally copper, then brass at about the end of the XVth century and finally bronze in about 1630.

In 1505, in Nigeria, a slave could be bought for 8–10 manillas, and an elephant’s ivory tooth for one copper manila. Impressive figures are available: between 1504 and 1507, Portuguese traders imported 287,813 manillas from Portugal into Guinea, Africa, via the trading station of São Jorge da Mina. The Portuguese trade increased over the following decades, with 150,000 manillas a year being exported to the like of their trading fort at Elmina, on the Gold Coast. An order for 1.4 million manillas was placed, in 1548, with a German merchant of the Fugger family, to support the trade.

In clear: without the copper of the Fugger’s, the slave-trade would not never have become what it became.

Benin bronze bas relief.

In 2023, a group of scientists discovered that some of the Benin bronzes, now reclaimed by African nations, were made with metal mined thousands of miles away… in the German Rhineland. The Edo people in the Kingdom of Benin, created their extraordinary sculptures with melted down brass manilla bracelets, Fugger’s grim currency of the transatlantic slave trade between the XVIth and XIXth centuries…

Endgame

Anton Fugger.

Anton Fugger tried to maintain the position of a house that, however, continued to weaken. Sovereigns were not as solvent as had been hoped. Charles V had serious financial worries and the looming bankruptcy was one of the causes he stepped down leaving the rule of the empire to his son, King Philip II of Spain. Despite all the gold and silver arriving, the Empire went bankrupt. On three occasions (1557, 1575, 1598), Philip II was unable to pay his debts, as were his successors, Philip III and Philip IV, in 1607, 1627 and 1647.

But the political grip of the Fugger over Spanish finances was so strong, writes Jeannette Graulau, that “when Philip II declared a suspension of payment in 1557, the bankruptcy did not include the accounts of the Fugger family. The Fugger offered Philip II a 50 % reduction in the interest of the loans if the firm was omitted from the bankruptcy. Despite intense lobbying by his powerful secretary, Francisco de Eraso, and Spanish bankers who were rivals of the Fugger, Philip did not include the Fugger in the bankruptcy.”

In 1563, the Fugger’s’ claims on the Spanish Crown amounted to 4.445 million florins, far more than their assets in Antwerp (783,000 florins), Augsburg (164,000 florins), Nuremberg and Vienna (28,600 florins), while their total assets amounted to 5.661 million florins.

But in the end, having tied their fate too closely to that of the Spanish sovereigns, the Fugger banking Empire collapsed with the collapse of the Spanish Hapsburg Empire. The Welser went belly up in 1614.

French professor Pierre Bezbakh, writing in Le Monde in Sept. 2021 noted:

Today, a handful of international banks called “Prime Brokers” are allowed to buy and resell on the secondary market French State Bonds, issued at regular dates by the French Treasury Agency to refinance French public debt (€3,150 billion) and most importantly to refinance debt repayments (€41 billion in 2023).

The names of today’s Fugger are: HSBC, BNP Paribas, Crédit Agricole, J.P. Morgan, Société Générale, Citigroup, Deutsche Bank, Barclays, Bank of America Securities and Natixis.

Conclusion

Beyond the story of the Fugger and Welser dynasties who, after colonizing Europeans, extended their colonial crimes to America, there’s something deeper to understand.

Today, it is said that the world financial system is “hopelessly” bankrupt. Technically, that is true, but politically it is successfully kept on the border of total collapse in order to keep the entire world dependent on a stateless financier predator class. A bankrupt system, paradoxically, despairs us, but gives them hope to remain in charge and maintain their privileges. Only bankers can save the world from bankruptcy!

Historically, we, as one humanity, have created “Nation States” duly equipped with government controlled “National Banks,” to protect us from such systemic financial blackmail. National Banks, if correctly operated, can generate productive credit generation for our long-term interest in developing our physical and human economy rather than the financial bubbles of the financial blackmailers. Unfortunately, such a positive system has rarely existed and when it existed it was shot down by the money-traders Roosevelt wanted to chase from the temple of the Republic.

As we have demonstrated, the severe mental dissociation called “monetarism” is the essence of (financial) fascism. Criminal financial and banking syndicates “print” and “create” money. If that money is not “domesticated” and used as an instrument for increasing the creative powers of mankind and nature, everything cannot, but go wrong.

Willing to “convert”, at all cost, including by the destruction of mankind and his creative powers, a nominal “value” that only exists as an agreement among men, into a form of “real” physical wealth, was the very essence of the Nazi war machine.

In order to save the outstanding debts of the UK and France to the US weapon industry owned by JP Morgan and consorts, Germany had to be forced to pay. When it turned out that was impossible, Anglo-French-American banking interests set up the “Bank for International Settlements”.

The BIS, under London’s and Wall Street’s direct supervision, allowed Hitler to obtain the Swiss currency he required to go shopping worldwide for his war machine, a war machine considered potentially useful as long as it was set to march East, towards Moscow. As a collateral for getting cash from the BIS, the German central bank would deposit as collateral tons of gold, stolen from countries it invaded (Austria, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Albania, etc.). The dental gold of the Jews, the communists, the homosexuals and the Gypsies being exterminated in the concentration camps, was deposited on a secret account of the Reichsbank to finance the SS.

The Bank of England’s and Hitler’s finance minister Hjalmar Schacht, who escaped the gallows of the Nuremberg trials thanks to his international protections, was undoubtedly the best pupil ever of Jacob Fugger the Rich, not the father of German or “modern” banking, but the father of financial fascism, inherited from Rome, Venice and Genoa. Never again.

Summary biography

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The challenging modernity of the Indus Valley Civilization

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Toys for children, Indus Valley Civilization.

Karel Vereycken, Paris, France, January 2023

A major archaeological discovery has just been made in Israel in 2022: the first evidence of the use of cotton fibers in the Near East and among the oldest in the world, dating back nearly 7,000 years, was discovered by Israeli, American and German archaeologists during an archaeological excavation at Tel Tsaf, southeast of Beit She'an, in the Jordan Valley of Israel. 
Microscopic remains of cotton discovered in Tel Tsaf, using micro-remains analysis. (Courtesy University of Haifa)

So far, the earliest available evidence of cotton fibers in the area was dated to a few hundred years later, to the late Chalcolithic (Copper Age) and Early Bronze Age (about 5,000 to 6,500 BCE) from the archaeological site of Dhuweila in eastern Jordan.

Discovered in 1940, the site of Tel Tsaf reveals its secrets. « Tsaf is characterized by an amazing preservation of organic materials, » said Professor Danny Rosenberg of the Zinman Institute of Archaeology at the University of Haifa. « Tel Tsaf was a kind of pole that concentrated important commercial activities and had established contacts with many other peoples, » Rosenberg believes. « There was massive storage capacity there to accommodate grain, enormous capacity if you compare it to other sites.

For example, the earliest evidence of the social use of beer drinking and ritual food storage has been found there. Rosenberg and the other researchers also found beads from contemporary Anatolia, Romania, Egypt and other parts of Africa; pottery from Iraq, Syria and Armenia; and the earliest copper and other metals found in the world.

“Wool Tree” and “Cotton Roads”

Trade relations of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The cotton found in Israel, probably came from the Indus region—modern Pakistan/India—which was the only place in the world that had begun to domesticate cotton at that time before its cultivation appeared in Africa thousands of years later.

« What’s interesting about this early evidence of a link to such a distant region is that it comes from fibers – microscopic pieces of ancient yarn. We assume that these cotton fibers, found along with wool fibers and plant fibers, arrived at the site as part of fabrics or clothing, i.e., ancient textiles, » Rosenberg says.

In addition, cotton was not only used for clothing: « In the prehistoric era, textiles were involved in many areas of life, not only in clothing but also in hunting, fishing … This is much more important than just saying that what we found are pieces of clothing that were worn by the inhabitants of the area. This discovery tells us a lot about the economic practices of the area, » says Rosenberg.

Since cotton had never been grown in Tel Tsaf, it was a surprise for the researchers to find it, and they felt that its presence underscored the city’s importance as a global trading hub at the heart of what could be called, the « Cotton Roads » of those days.

Growing cotton poses major challenges: a moderate to tropical climate and vast amounts of water. Just to produce a single T-shirt and a pair of jeans (representing about 1 kg of cotton), no less than 20,000 liters of water are required! Which civilization can afford such a performance at the beginning of the 7th millennium BC?


The Indus Valley civilization (IVC)

In yellow: settlements, colonies and outposts of the IVC. In white, the Himalayan snow which feeds the Indus Valley water flow.

The term « Indus Valley Civilization » (IVC) refers to a vast cultural and political entity that flourished in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent between about 8000 and about 1900 BCE., a region that stretched from Baluchistan (Pakistan) in the west to Uttar Pradesh (India) in the east and from northeastern Afghanistan in the north to Gujarat (India) in the south.

In the absence of both literary sources and remnants of palaces and temples to confirm it, one cannot qualify this entity as a “Kingdom” or an “Empire”. Its modern name (IVC) derives simply from its location in the Indus Valley, but also goes under the name of the « Indus-Sarasvati civilization » or « Harappan civilization ». These last designations come from the river Sarasvati, mentioned in the Vedic sources, which flowed next to the Indus and which would have disappeared, and from the ancient city of Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), discovered by the British in 1829, but deliberately left unexplored.

The rise of a great urban civilization in the Indus Valley, which reached its maturity around 2500-2400 BCE, was long considered a sudden and mysterious phenomenon. Today, a series of discoveries allows us to follow, from 7000 to 2500 BCE, a series of transformations and innovations whose cumulative effects, stimulated by the enlargement of the network of exchanges from 3000 BCE onwards, created the conditions for the development of an incredibly modern and prosperous urban civilization.


Enter Mehrgarh, the light of the world!

Remnants of Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan). Houses and food storage facilities.



Since prehistoric times, the Indus region has been pioneering and rich in discoveries. As an example, for the Guinness Book of Records, although a case apart, the farming village of Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan) which dates from the Neolithic (using only stones as tools) but can be considered as the key culture and city that lead humanity, as early as in the 8th millennia BCE, from the Stone Age into the Age of Copper.

The site is located on the principal route between what is now Afghanistan and the Indus Valley: this route was also undoubtedly part of a trading connection established quite early between the Near East and the Indian subcontinent.

Excavations in Mes Aynak (Afghanistan), where archaeologists are only beginning to find remnants of a 5,000-year-old Bronze Age site beneath the Buddhist level, including an ancient copper smelter, will undoubtedly shed new light on these relationships.

On the basis of a variety of well-documented archaeological finds, it has been established that “pre-Harrapan” Mehrgarh, made several historical breakthroughs for the benefit of humanity as a whole.

Mehrgarh gave the world:

  • among the oldest traces of agriculture (wheat and barley) and breeding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia ;
  • the first breweries (with wheat and barley);
  • the oldest reservoirs for irrigated agriculture and flood prevention;
  • the oldest traces of cotton culture (6th millennium BCE);
  • the oldest jewel, called the « Mehrgarh amulet » (6th millennium BCE), produced with the « lost wax » bronze casting technique ;
  • the oldest bow drills (in green jasper) allowing to drill holes in lapis lazuli and carnelian;
  • the very first traces of successfull dentistry practices (!) (9th millennium BCE); The inhabitants of Mehrgarh appeared to have developed an understanding of surgery and dentistry, as evidenced by the drilled teeth of some of the skeletons found at the site. Analysis of the teeth shows that prehistoric dentists worked to treat toothaches with drills made from flint heads. The work was so elaborate that even modern dentists are surprised at the efficiency with which the Mehrgarh « dentists » removed decaying tooth tissue. Among the remains, a total of eleven drilled crowns were found, with one example showing evidence of a complex procedure involving the removal of tooth enamel followed by carving of the cavity wall. Four of the teeth show evidence of decay associated with the drilled hole. None of the individuals with drilled teeth appear to have come from a special tomb or shrine, indicating that the oral health care they received was available to all.
Dentistry practices were common in 9000 BCE in Mehrgarh.



Densely populated

Originally, the IVC was built around the fishy meanders of the Indus, a river nearly 3200 kilometers long that flows from the Himalayan mountains towards the Arabian Sea. Like the populations of other great river valleys, this society was seduced by the fertility of the land as well as by the possibility of using the Indus as a transportation route.

The IVC, whose prosperity rests largely on the increasingly systematic exploitation of the rich silt of the Indus, spread over an immense territory encompassing the entire Indus Valley and part of Indian Gujarat. It is necessary to add to the vast zone of distribution of the Indus civilization some Harappan « colonies » or outposts like Sutkagan Dor (Ballochistan, Pakistan), close to Gwadar on the edges of the sea of Oman, at the Iranian-Pakistani border, and the lapus lazuli mining town of Shortugai, close to Amu Darya river, at the Afghan-Tajik border, at nearly 1,200 kilometers of Mohenjo-daro, by far the largest IVC urban concentration.

Four famous river basin based civilizations.

At its peak, this civilization was twice as large as the Old Kingdom of Egypt. With an area of 2.5 million square kilometers, it was at the time the largest civilization in the world: it included 5 million people, or 10 % of the world population at the time, much more than less older civilizations as Sumer (0.8 to 1.5 million people) or ancient Egypt (2 to 3 million).

To date, about 2,000 sites have been discovered in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Because of various wars and conflicts, only 10 % of the territory of these sites has been excavated and scientifically investigated. On the Indian subcontinent, the main centers of this civilization are Harappa (estimated 23,500 inhabitants) and Mohenjo-daro (est. 40,000 inhabitants) in Pakistan and Lothal, Dholavira and Kalibangan in India. In addition to trade relations with Mesopotamia and Iran, the Harappan city-states also maintained active trade relations with the peoples of Central Asia.

Agriculture, crafts and industry

IVC and India.

Agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, trade and commerce were the main source of income.

Agriculture was the main occupation of the people of the Indus Valley. They cultivated barley and wheat on a large scale (and made beer) but also other crops such as legumes, cotton, cereals, sesame, dates, mustard, melons, peas, etc.

There is no real evidence of rice, but a few grains of rice have been found in Rangpur and Lothal.

In the towns of Mehrgarh, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro, there are remains of large granaries, suggesting that they produced more than they needed and physically stocked cereals and other food products in case of crop failure.

Bull from IVC

Animal husbandry was another major occupation. Seals suggest that they domesticated cows, buffalos, goats, sheep, pigs, etc. Camels and bullocks were also domesticated and used as beasts of burden. Camel bones have been found in large numbers at many sites, but there is no trace of them on the seals. During the excavation of Surkotado in Gujarat, India, the jawbone of a horse was found. Terracotta figurines representing a horse were found in Nausharo and Lothal.

The inhabitants of the Indus Valley were very skillful. They made ceramics, metal vessels, tools and weapons, weaved and spun, dyed and practiced other crafts with potter’s wheels. The weavers wore clothes made of cotton and wool. They knew leather, but there is no record of silk production.

Ceramics from Mehrgarh (3000 BCE).

The inhabitants of this civilization originally came from the Bronze Age and used stone tools, but they soon excelled in the manufacture and processing of gold, silver, copper, lead and bronze, especially for artistic ornaments of great finesse.

Artisans made jewelry in Mohenjo-daro, Chanho-daro and Lothal. They used ivory and various precious stones such as carnelian, lapis lazulite, agate and jasper to make them. Shell work was also a thriving industry. Craftsmen in the coastal colonies used shells to make buttons for shirts, pendants, rings, bracelets, beads, etc.

To supply the production of these craft professions, they needed to import various raw materials. To produce bricks and ceramics, clay was available locally, but for metal they had to acquire it from abroad. Trade focused on importing raw materials to be used in Harappan city workshops, including minerals from Iran and Afghanistan, lead and copper from other parts of India, jade from China, and cedar wood floated down rivers from the Himalayas and Kashmir. Other trade goods included terracotta pots, gold, silver, metals, beads, flints for making tools, seashells, pearls, and colored gemstones, such as lapis lazuli and turquoise.

Ox carts were used to transport goods from one place to another. They also constructed barges used on the waterways along the Indus and its tributaries for transportation.

One of the ways historians know about the maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations is the discovery of Harappan seals and jewelry at archaeological sites in regions of Mesopotamia, which includes most of modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, and parts of Syria. Long-distance sea trade over bodies of water—such as the Arabian Sea, Red Sea and the Persian Gulf—may have become feasible with the development of plank watercraft that were each equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.

Land and maritime trade relations.

Historians have also made inferences about networks of exchange based on similarities between artifacts across civilizations.

Between 4300 and 3200 BCE, ceramics from the Indus Valley Civilization area show similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran. During the Early Harappan period—about 3200 to 2600 BCE—there are cultural similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, and ornaments that document caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.

The wonders of Mohenjo-daro

Sometimes referred to as the « Manhattan of the Bronze Age » for the grid pattern of the city plan, Mohenjo-daro (Sind, Pakistan) remained buried under meters of alluvial sediment until 1922.

A real metropolis made of baked bricks, it covers more than 200 hectares. Strictly squared, cut in two by a street of ten meters wide, divided from north to south by a dozen arteries drawn with the cord, and crossed from east to west by paved streets, Mohenjo-daro represents, by its strictly reflected urban framework, the model city of the Indus civilization. It could have accommodated up to 40,000 people!

The stunning contribuions of the Indus Valley Civilization to humankind.
Major breakthroughs of the IVC: production of standardized bricks, tower water wells (left), circular grinding place (mill) for cereals (right), unified system of measurement (center), shipbuilding and sailing (below).

The Harappans were masters of hydraulic engineering, a “riparian” people working in river corridors practicing irrigated agriculture. They mastered both the shaduf (an irrigation tool used to draw water from a well), and windmills.

In the Harappan cities, the domestic and manufacturing areas were separated from each other.

The inhabitants, living in one-, two-, and sometimes three-story dwellings, seem to have been mainly artisans, farmers, and merchants. The people had developed the wheel, cattle-drawn carts, flat-bottomed boats large enough to carry goods, and perhaps also sailing. In the field of agriculture, they had understood and used irrigation techniques and canals, various agricultural implements, and had established different areas for livestock grazing and cultivation.

Seals and harrapan script

Seals with trade-marks.

Among the thousands of artifacts found at the various sites are small soapstone seals just over one inch (3 cm) in diameter, used to sign contracts, authorize land sales, and authenticate the point of origin, shipment, and receipt of goods in long-distance trade. On each seal is a small text in Harappan, a language yet to be deciphered.

Among the thousands of artifacts found at the various sites are small soapstone seals just over one inch (3 cm) in diameter, used to sign contracts, authorize land sales, and authenticate the point of origin, shipment, and receipt of goods in long-distance trade.

Commercial contacts between the Indus and Sumer populations are well documented. Numerous seals from the Indus Valley have been discovered in Mesopotamia. On each seal, a small text in Harappean, a language that remains to be deciphered.

If 4,200 texts reached us, 60 % of them are seals or mini-tablets of stone or copper, engraved, and they comprise on average… only five signs! The longest text has 26 signs. The texts are always accompanied by the image of an animal, often a unicorn or a majestic buffalo. They were intended to mark goods, probably indicating the name of the owner or the recipient and a quantity or a year. Trying to decipher the Indus language is a bit like trying to learn French only from the labels on the food shelf of a supermarket!

The invention of sanitation

Several cities such as Mohenjo-daro or Harappa had individual « flush toilets ».

In addition to this particular attention that they paid to urban planning, the members of the Indus civilization also seem to have been pioneers of modern hygiene. Some cities, notably Mohenjo-daro, were equipped with small containers (dustbins) in which the inhabitants could deposit their household waste.

Anticipating our « all to the sewer » systems imagined in the 16th century by Leonardo da Vinci for the project envisaged by François I for the new French capital Romarantin, many cities had already public water supply and an ingenious sanitation system.

In many cities, including Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal and Rakhigari, individual houses or groups of houses were supplied with water from wells. This quality fresh water was used as much for food and personal hygiene (baths, toilets) as for the economic activities of the inhabitants.

Remnants of a bathing room and evacuation system in Lothal.

As an example, the sanitation system of the port city of Lothal (Gujarat, India) where many houses had a bathroom and private brick latrines. The wastewater was evacuated through a communal sewer system that led either to a canal in the port, or to a soaking pit outside the city walls, or to buried urns equipped with a hole allowing the evacuation of liquids, which were regularly emptied and cleaned.

Water from wells was brought to the highest level of the city. From there, it could flow to households, to bathrooms. Once used, the water flow would be evacuated via underground pipes and sewer systems and be conducted outside the city.

Excavations at the Mohenjo-daro site have also revealed the existence of no less than 700 brick water wells, houses equipped with bathrooms and individual and collective latrines. Toilets were an essential element. However, early archaeologists erroneously identified most toilets as post-cremation burial urns or simple cesspools. Many buildings in the city were two or more stories high. Water from the roof and bathrooms of the upper floors was channeled through closed clay pipes or open troughs that emptied, if necessary via the toilets, into the covered sewers underneath the paved street.

This extraordinary achievement is confirmed by a 2016 scientific study, entitled « The Evolution of Toilets Around the World Across the Millennia, » which reports that,

The earliest multi-flush toilets connected to a sophisticated sewage system that have been identified so far were found in the ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley, dating from the middle of the third millennium BC. Nearly every dwelling unit in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal was equipped with a private bath-toilet area with drains to carry dirty water into a larger drain that emptied into the sewer and drainage system.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/8/8/779/htm

Till now, it are the Minoan (Crete) civilization and China that have been credited for the first use of underground clay pipes for sanitation and water supply. In the Cretan capital Knossos, there was a well-organized water system to bring in clean water, to evacuate wastewater and to provide storm sewers for overflow in case of heavy rains.

In Knossos existed also one of the earliest uses of flush toilets, dating back to the 18th century BCE. The Minoan civilization had stone sewers that were periodically cleaned with clean water. Crete, of course, was a large provider of Copper ore for the entire world in Antiquity and had vast international trade connections.

Religious and cultural worldview

« Great Bath » in Mohenjo-daro, swimming pool or religious temple? In medaillon: artist view.

In the IVC, fertility rituals were probably observed in order to promote a full harvest as well as for women’s pregnancies, as evidenced by a number of figurines, amulets and statuettes with female form.

« King-Priest » found at Mohenjo-daro (4500 BCE).

It is thought that the people, like the Dravidians who some believe were the origin of the Indus Civilization, worshiped a “mother goddess” and possibly a male companion represented as a horned figure in the company of wild animals.

The « Great Bath » at Mohenjo-daro would have been used for purification rites related to religious belief, but it could just as easily have been a public pool for recreation. Our knowledge of the religious beliefs of this culture remains in the realm of mere hypothesis.

The title of the famous statue of the « Priest-King » found at Mohenjo-daro is misleading, as there is no evidence that it is a king or a priest, and it may be a simple cotton trader…

Apart from pottery, certain types of elementary weapons (spearheads, axes, arrows, etc.) and certain tools for practical purposes, two types of artifacts give us cultural clues about Harappean society.

Dancing girl, bronze, Delhi.

First, some figurines, which we try to interpret as devotional objects, seem to be simple toys. For others, they are clearly toys, notably animals (oxen, buffaloes, elephants, goats and even a simple hen), made of bronze or terracotta, mounted on small carts with wheels.

Toys.

Second, among other objects expressing a high level of sensitivity and consciousness, a series of masks, some of which seem inspired by Mongolian masks.

These masks are clearly intended to serve comic or tragic representations and remind us of the ancient masks that have come down to us from classical Greece.

Masks of IVC.

Older than Sumer and Egypt?

Archaeological excavations of the IVC got off to a late start, and it is now believed that some of the achievements and « firsts » attributed to Egypt ( – 3150 BC) and Mesopotamia ( – 4500 BC) may in fact belong to the inhabitants of the Indus Valley civilization.

In May 2016, the report published by a team of researchers from IIT Kharagpur, Institute of Archaeology, Deccan College Pune, Physical Research Laboratory and Archaeological survey of India (ASI), published by the journal Nature, shattered a number of “facts” that were considered unshakeable certainties.

https://www.nature.com/articles/srep26555

Until now, the 900 years of the « mature » phase of the IVC was dated as ranging from 2800 to 1900 BCE. However, the aforementioned Indian study indicates that this civilization was much older than previously thought – it is at least 8,000 years old!

To determine the age of this civilization, researchers dated pottery using a technique called optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) – and found it to be nearly 6,000 years old, the oldest pottery known to date.

Other artifacts have been dated to 8,000 years ago. The results come from a major site excavated at Bhirrana (Haryana, India) that shows the preservation of all cultural levels of this ancient civilization, from the pre-Harappan phase through the Early Harappan to the Mature Harappan period. Bhirrana was part of a high concentration of sites along the mythical Vedic river « Saraswati », now dried up, an extension of the Harki-Ghaggar River in the Thar Desert.

The submerged cities of the Gulf of Khambhat

These new dates converge with the discovery, in January 2002, of ruins of submerged cities in the Gulf of Khambhat (formerly Cambay), off the coast of the state of Gujarat in northwest India.

It is the oceanographers of the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) of Madras who made this discovery. The team was surveying the muddy sea 30 km off the coast of the state of Gujarat, in the Gulf of Khambhat, to measure the levels of marine pollution. As a routine measure, they recorded acoustic images of the ocean floor.

One of NIOT’s sonar scans of underwater constructions.

It was only several months later, while analyzing the data, that the team realized that they had, without knowing it, obtained images of the ruins of a huge city, sunken 40 meters below sea level. And, at the end of January 2002, after having spent weeks to dredge the site and to bring up more than 2 000 objects, the team of the NIOT was able to make extraordinary revelations.

The ruins stretch for 9 km along the banks of an ancient river, and the remains of a dam can be distinguished. The sunken city shares striking similarities with the sites of the Indus civilization. One of the buildings, the size of an Olympic swimming pool, with collapsed steps, recalls the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro. Another rectangular monument, 200 m long and 45 m wide, is as large as the acropolis discovered at Harappa. The team of NIOT also glimpsed another building, a kind of granary, made of mud bricks, 183 m long. Near these monumental installations, rows of rectangular buildings that resemble the foundations of ruined houses can be seen, and even a drainage system and roads. On another visit to the site, the team recovered polished stone tools, ornaments and figurines, pottery debris, semi-precious stones, ivory and the fossilized remains of a human spine, jaw and tooth. But the team was not at the end of its surprises.

It sent samples of a fossilized log to two major Indian laboratories specializing in dating methods: the Birbal Sbahni Institute of Paleobotany (BSIP) in Lucknow and the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) in Hyderabad. The BSIP dated it to 5500 BCE, while the NGRI dated the sample much earlier, probably to 7500 BCE.

This dating would make Khambhat the oldest site discovered in India. According to some, this discovery could mark the end of the theory according to which urbanization spreads from Asia from the west towards the Indus. This dating caused intense controversy. Archaeologist G. Possehl points out that there is no reason to believe that the fossilized piece of wood belongs to the ruins of the ancient city, given the strong sea currents in the region, it could have come from elsewhere. NIOT’s team acknowledged the validity of these criticisms and assured that other objects would be subjected to dating methods. It is also a question of understanding how this city was sunk and how it ended up 30 km from the coast.

Harsh Gupta, geologist, thinks that it is a gigantic earthquake which caused the destruction of the city. We are in a high seismic risk area, and the 2001 Bhuj earthquake showed the vulnerability of the region to such phenomena. However, the priority is to definitively establish the age of the sunken city and prove it to be the most exciting discovery of this century.

Historical cradle of textiles

In his book Empire of Cotton, A Global History (2015) Sven Beckert traces in depth the development of what the ancients, intrigued by its resemblance to the feel of wool, called the « wool tree. » While this plant grows in both temperate and tropical climates, it needs an abundance of moisture to thrive fully, which consigns its cultivation to naturally and then artificially irrigated river valleys.

According to the author, « The farmers of the Indus Valley were the first to spin and weave cotton. In 1929, archaeologists found fragments of cotton textiles at Mohenjo-Daro, in present-day Pakistan, dating from 3250 to 2750 BCE. Cotton seeds found in nearby Mehrgarh have been dated to 5000 BCE. Literary references also attest to the antiquity of the cotton industry in the subcontinent. The Vedic scriptures, composed between 1500 and 1200 BCE., allude to the spinning and weaving of cotton…”

Historically, the discovery of the first cotton fragments was made at Mohenjo-daro during an expedition led by Sir John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928. In his book on Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, Sir Marshall relates that fragments of cloth were wrapped around a silver perfume pot and a salt shaker.

Early forms of Self-government?

Remnants of Mohenjo-daro. Note: the buddhist temple (stupa) on top of the « citadel » is much more recent than the foundation of the city itself.

The fact remains that the political organization of the Indus cities escapes the experts. Because contrary to the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, the researches realized on the sites of the valley of the Indus did not bring to light any temple or palace of scale. There is no proof either of the existence of a permanent army…

Of what to wonder about the presence or not of a political power. Panic among British archaeologists and geopoliticians always inclined to project their own colonial ideology of aristocratic castes on the rest of the world.

In reality, each city seems to have had its own governor, or citizen council coordinating with other urban areas, all adhering to a number of common principles considered mutually beneficial.

This “Coincidence of Opposites”, of great diversity with perfect similarity, intrigues expert John Keay:

What amazed all those pioneers, and what remains the distinguishing characteristic of the several hundred Harappan sites now known, is their apparent similarity: ‘Our overriding impression is of cultural uniformity, both throughout the several centuries during which Harappan civilization flourished, and over the vast area it occupied.’ The ubiquitous bricks, for example, all have standardized dimensions, just as the stone cubes used by the Harappans to measure weight are also standardized and based on the modular system. The width of roads conforms to a similar module; thus, streets are generally twice as wide as side streets, while main arteries are two or one and a half times as wide as streets. Most of the streets excavated so far are straight and run north to south or east to west. The city plans thus conform to a regular grid pattern and seem to have retained this arrangement through several phases of construction.

Hence, given the existence of a unified system of weights and measures; given the similarity of urban organization as well as the standardization of the size of terracotta bricks for hundreds of cities, it is therefore simply impossible that the every man for himself reigned supreme.

Cradle of democracy?

In 1993, in an article entitled « The Indus Valley Civilization, Cradle of Democracy? », published by the UNESCO Courier, the internationally renowned Pakistani archaeologist and museologist, Syed A. Naqv, who has been fighting for the preservation of the Mohenjo-daro site, attempted to answer the question.

In all the highly developed civilizations of the past – Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, Anatolia, China – the pervasive influence of an imperial authority can be felt, providing patronage for the arts and directing the evolution of society. A close examination of such an imperial authority over this civilization, which flourished some 5,000 years ago and covered almost twice the area of the civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile combined seems to belie the presence of an authoritarian regime, the Indus civilization had a well-disciplined way of life, civic controls and organizational system which could only have stemmed from the kind of “rule by the people” that was exercised in some Greek city-State some 2,000 years later. Did Greece give birth to democracy, or did Greece simply follow a practice developed earlier?

Although there are no large structures acting as centers of authority,

the discoveries made so far suggest that the rule of law extended over an area measuring roughly 1,600 kilometers from the north to the south and more that 800 kilometers from east to west. The main argument in support of this thesis is the existence of well-established norms and standards which would have required the consensus of the people if they had not been imposed by an authoritarian regime. It is impossible to ignore the evidence furnished by the perfect planning of the great city of Mohenjo-daro and the use in its construction of standard-sized bricks 27.94 cm long, 13.96 cm wide and 5.71 cm thick.

In the two large cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, about 600 km distant,

the grid pattern of the street layout uncovered by the archaeological excavations shows that great attention was paid to the security of the inhabitants and suggests the existence of a highly developed and well-monolithic system of civic control.

The same is true of the highly sophisticated sewage system and the existence of

a virtually complete series of highly polished stone weights. Their shapes are cubical, half-cubical, cylindrical and spherical, and very few of them are reported to be defective. They provide yet another proof of a civic authority maintaining consistent commercial standards.

It is not possible to conclude that such « a philosophical conception of democracy exists until the Harappan script is deciphered and written evidence is provided. But the signs are there, and further research in this direction may well establish that ‘government by the people’ originated in the Indus Valley, » the author concludes.

Finally, since this agricultural people, who knew the use of the spears and the arrows but didn’t leave any trace of a major military activity – few weapons nor fortifications with exclusively defensive purpose have been found – , many observers agree to say that this society could have known the longest period of peace of the history of the humanity.

Decay and fall

In two of his books, the Timaeus and the Critias, the Greek philosopher Plato tells the story « certainly true, although strange » of a maritime people with incomparable power: the Atlantes whose civilization and capital he describes in great detail.

Starting 10,000 years before our era from an island located beyond the columns of Hercules, the Atlanteans would have ended up dominating the whole of Africa and Western Europe.

In a passage which is not without recalling the type of political organization which could exist in Mohenjo-daro, Critias specifies that Atlantis was then inhabited « by the various classes of men who deal with the trades and agriculture. The warriors, separated from the beginning by divine men, lived separately, possessing all that was necessary for their existence and that of their children. Among them, there were no particular fortunes; all goods were in common: they demanded from the other citizens nothing beyond what they needed to live, and fulfilled in return all the obligations that our talk of yesterday attributed to the defenders of the fatherland as we conceive them. »

Perhaps speaking metaphorically, Plato states that initially virtuous, the Atlantis civilization would have sunk into excess, arrogance and corruption to the point of being chastised by Poseidon himself for having embarked on one war too many, this time against Athens. And « in the time lapse of a single terrible day and night (…) the island of Atlantis sank into the sea and disappeared ».

At the historical level, the sudden decline of the Indus civilization around 1900 BC remains a mystery. Historians point to aspects of Minoan civilization (Crete) showing astonishing similarities with the IVC, especially watermanagement and early sewer systems in Knossos, lost wax broze casting techniques and bull fighting.

A few traces of fire and destruction, as well as forty skeletons wounded with knives and found without burial at Morenjo-daro, first suggested an invasion by Aryan peoples from Central Asia or the Iranian plateau. « This theory has now been abandoned. We have indeed found no effective trace of massacres or violence on the sites of the Indus Valley, or furniture that could be associated with such populations, » says Aurore Didier, researcher at the CNRS and director of the Indus mission.

Another hypothesis, an inability to strengthen its resilience to climatic chaos. « The samples taken in the northwest of India have shown that the climate there has changed significantly about 2000 years before our era. It is reported that this was also the case in Mesopotamia. « It became more like the dry and arid climate of today, which disrupted the cultivation and, in fact, the trade of the Indus civilizations. The ensuing socio-economic upheaval may have led to the decline of these societies. This hypothesis is the most commonly accepted to date, » says the archaeologist.

The inhabitants would have left their valleys become infertile to migrate to the plains of the Ganges. « This was accompanied by a change in livelihood strategies. The Indus civilization gradually converted to summer cereal crops based on rice and millet, two commodities more able to withstand these new climatic conditions and requiring, for rice, the development of irrigated agriculture, » says Aurore Didier. « It has also forged links with new trading partners.”

So there is no reason to talk about the « collapse » of a society in the sense of collapsologists. It is rather a gradual adaptation to the evolution of the environment, spread over several centuries.

As the excavations of the sites of the Indus Valley civilization continue, new information will undoubtedly contribute to a better understanding of its history and development. Any additional knowledge of this common civilizational legacy will serve in the future as a basis for fraternal cooperation between Pakistan, India and Afghanistan and others.

In the meantime, instead of trying to copy the barbaric « models » of the Mongolian Empire, the Roman Empire or the British Empire, the « elites » of the transatlantic world would do better to draw inspiration from a magnificent civilization that seems to have prospered for 5,000 years without perpetual wars and massacres, but simply thanks to a good mutual understanding, at the national level, between citizens, and thanks to mutually beneficial cooperation with the overriding majority of its distant partners.

The Indus Valley Civilization’s modernity, capable of offering food, shelter, water and sanitation to all, in a mirror image, shows all of us living in the present, how backwards we became.


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The splendors of the kingdoms of Ife and Benin

Bronze and terracotta heads excavated in Ife, Nigeria, (XIIth-XIVth Century).

The breathtaking beauty of the XIIth century bronze heads of Ife (Nigeria) challenge the colonial view that Africa was a virgin continent, populated by animals and a few primitive tribes which failed walking their first steps into « history ».

Today inhabited by a half million people, the city of Ife in southwest Nigeria, was formerly the religious center and former capital of the Yoruba people whose prosperity was essentially the fruit of their trade with the peoples of West Africa along the 4200 km long Niger River and beyond.

What some call today “Yorubu-land”, inhabited by some 55 million people, covered some 142,000 km2 comprising vast parts of countries such as today’s Nigeria (76%), Benin (18.9%) and Togo (6.5%).

Today, the Yoruba people live in Ghana, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast and, since the slave trade, in the United States. It is not surprising, therefore, that yoruba, also the name of one of the three major languages of Nigeria, is also spoken in parts of Benin and Togo, as well as in the West Indies and Latin America, including Cuba and other settlements populated by descendants of African slaves.

An extraordinary discovery

It was in January 1938, during excavation work for the construction of a house, that workers discovered an unusual treasure in the Wunmonije district of Ife. At a mere hundred meters distance away of the site of what once was the Royal Palace, they unearthed thirteen magnificent bronze heads dating from the XIIth century representing a king (an « Ooni« ), some women and courtiers. Others have since been unearthed.

Their faces, except for the lips, are covered with grooves. The hairstyle suggests a complex crown composed of several layers of tubular balls, topped by a crest with a rosette and an « egret ». The surface of this crown bears traces of red and black paint.

These large heads may have been used as effigies of the deceased in funeral ceremonies, which, among the Yoruba, sometimes took place a year after the rapid burial of the dead imposed by the tropical climate.

At the time of the discovery, the extremely naturalist rendering of the heads is considered anachronistic in the art of sub-Saharan Africa, and even more disturbing than the very “classical” i.e. realistic “mummy portraits” (Ist-IInd century) discovered as early as 1887 in the Faiyum depression of Egypt.

Yet a long tradition of figurative sculpture with similar characteristics as the bronze heads of Ife existed before, particularly among the Nok, a people of farmers who mastered iron metallurgy starting from 800 BC.

Hysteria

Bronze head, site of Wunmonije, Ife, Nigeria (XIIth – XIVth Century).

Since 1938, the « heads of Ife » have provoked reactions close to hysteria in Europe and the West in general.

On the one hand, the « modernists » and the « abstract » artists of the early XXth century, for whom the more abstract a sculpture is and the more distant it is from reality, the more it was considered as typically African. For those who were inspired by African « abstract » art to free themselves from what they considered as materialistic naturalism, the heads of Ife brutally challenged their self-deceiving “smart” narrative.

On the other hand, especially for the supporters of colonial imperialism, this art simply could not be. Frank Willett, at one point the head of the Nigerian Department of Antiquities and author of Ife, an African civilization (Editions Tallandier, 1967), reported that « Europeans visiting Ife frequently wonder how people living in houses of dried mud, with straw roofs, could have made such beautiful objects as the bronzes and terracotta in the museum ». Trying to answer that question, the publisher Sir Mortimer Wheeler replied: “The prejudice is alive and well that artistic creation and sensitivity cannot exist without domestic talent and sanitary comfort!”

The questions of the Europeans were numerous. How, in the XIIth century, could primitive peoples, who had never known an organized form of state, have made bronze heads of such refinement, using techniques that even Europe failed to master at that juncture? How could it have been possible, for tribes, subjected to superstition and irrational magic, could have observed the human anatomy so meticulously? How could savages have expressed such noble feelings towards both men and women? Faced with such an unbearable paradox, total denial was their only answer.

The German archeologist Leo Frobenius (1873-1938).

Hence, when the German archaeologist Leo Frobenius presented the bronze heads, western experts refused to believe in the existence of an African civilization capable of leaving artifacts of a quality they recognized as comparable to the best artistic achievements of ancient Rome or Greece. In a desperate attempt to explain what passed for an anomaly, Frobenius, without the slightest semblance of proof, came up with the theory that these heads had been cast by a Greek colony founded in the XIIIth century BC, and that the latter could be at the origin of the old legend of the lost civilization of Atlantis, a narrative immediately adopted in chorus by the mass media…

Bronze

Bronze head, site of Wunmonije, Ife, Nigeria (XIIth – XIVth Century).

What first shocked Western experts was that these were not carved wood but sophisticated bronze heads (about 70 % copper, 16.5 % zinc and 11.3 % lead).

Given the extreme scarcity of copper ore in Nigeria, these objects demonstrate that the region had trade relations with distant countries. The ore is believed to have come from Central Europe, northwest Mauritania, the Byzantine Empire or, via the Niger River, from Timbuktu where the ore arrived by camel from southern Morocco.

If during the Neolithic period, copper, gold and silver nuggets were hammered cold or hot, it is only starting from the Bronze Age that man develops the science of real metallurgy. From ores, he was then able to extract metals thanks to a precise heat treatment, made possible by the experience of the ceramists of the time, great experts in the construction of high temperature ovens.

Copper only melts at 1083° Celsius, but by adding tin (which melts at 232°) and lead (which melts at 327°), it is possible to obtain bronze at 890° and brass at 900°. The terracotta is made at low temperature, around 600 to 800°. It should be underlined that in China, since the Shang Dynasty (1570-1045 BC), certain types of porcelain obtained much higher temperatures, between 1000 and 1300° Celsius, obtained thanks to the use of charcoal.

The oldest traces of ceramics in sub-Saharan Africa are thought to date back to more than 9000 BC, and perhaps earlier. Bu some fragmentary shards have been discovered in West Africa, in this case in Mali, and considered dating from 12000 BC. Ceramics also were produced further south, notably by the Nok culture in northern Nigeria at the beginning of the first millennium BC.

Lost-wax casting

What also shocked the experts was that the technique used to make them was the quite sophisticated so-called « lost-wax casting » or “cire perdue” technique, a high precision molding process that is still used today to make church bells.

First, a model was made out of wax. This was covered with fine clay to form a mold, which was then heated so that the wax melted and ran away. Molten metal was poured into the clay mold which would be broken open to release the complete object.

Clearly, the foundries producing these artifacts required a highly skilled and well organized professional labor force.

The exceptional know-how and skills of the bronze founders of Ife was preceded by those of Igbo-Ukwu in eastern Nigeria where in 1939 a tomb filled with artifacts dating from the IXth century was discovered, revealing the existence of a powerful and refined kingdom mastering the famous lost-wax casting technique, but which so far could not be linked to any other culture in the region.

Bronze heads and other objects excavated in Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria (IXth Century).

The oldest known example of the lost-wax technique comes from a 6,000-year-old wheel-shaped copper amulet found at Mehrgarh in today’s Pakistan. Although China, Greece and Rome mastered this technique, it was not until the Renaissance that it made its return to Europe.

Ife, an organized state

Pre-colonial kingdoms and states in Africa.
Terracotta head, site of Wunmonije, Ife, Nigeria (XIIth – XIVth Century).
Bronze head of a King (Ooni), site of Wunmonije, Ife, Nigeria (XIIth – XIVth Century).

In reality, the art of Ife challenged the colonial theory that Africa was a virgin land, populated by animals and a few primitive tribes who had never taken their first steps in « history ».

Indeed, any evidence showing the existence of empires, kingdoms or great states on the African continent that allowed Africans to govern themselves peacefully for centuries could only de-legitimize the « civilizing mission » of colonialism.

However, according to oral traditions, Ife was founded in the 9th-10th centuries by Oduduwa, through the fusion of 13 villages into a single city becoming the hearth of Yoruba mythology, who considers Ife as the cradle of humanity and the center of the world.

Recognized as a minor god, Oduduwa became the first Ooni (King) and had an Aafin (palace) built. He ruled with the help of the isoro, former village chiefs who had recovered a religious title and were subject to royal political authority.

According to the same oral traditions, Oduduwa is said to have been an exiled Prince of a foreign people, who left his homeland and traveled south with his suite, settling among the Yoruba around the XIIth century. His religious faith, that he brought with him, was so important to him and his followers that it would have been the cause of their exodus in the first place.

Bronze statue of a tender king offering a helping hand to his Queen. Site of Ita Yemoo, Ife, Nigeria, (XII to XIVth Century).

Oduduwa’s land or country of origin remains a matter of debate. For some, he comes from Mecca, for others from Egypt, as the technical skills he brought with him are supposed to demonstrate.

So far, most historians have looked to influences arriving by sea and waterways. However, it is a very plausible hypothesis that travel routs through the savanna, could have connected the Niger Delta with the Nile, like a sort of great transcontinental land-bridge, passing notably via Chad, a region where thousands of early cave paintings testify the vivacity of pictorial creativity.

As our good friend Kotto Essomé repeatedly underlined, African states often prospered along the climatic zones, following “horizontally” the latitudes. Colonial borders were deliberately drawn (laterally or “vertically”) to break the natural boundaries of pre-colonial African states.

In oppostion to current (colonial) borders, African states often developed horizontally parallel to climate zones. This map shows a tiny red strip of dense urban settlements stretching from Senegal in the East to the Nile in the West, in a climate zone of temperate savannas, optimal for both cattle raising and farming.

Now, as this map clearly indicates, a horizontal “ribbon” of habitable urban areas, on the borderline between the herbaceous and wooded savanna, stretches over the entire continent from the Atlantic till the Southern Nile. Unsurprisingly, this particular climatic and geographical area might have been optimally suited for both hunting, agriculture and cattle raising.

From their part, the Edo people of Benin City believed that Oduduwa was in fact a prince of their extraction, who would have fled Benin during a fight over royal succession. This is why one of his descendants, Prince Oramiyan, would have been allowed to return and found the dynasty ruling the Kingdom of Benin. Prince Oramiyan was thus the first oba of Benin, successfully replacing the Ogiso monarchical system that had reigned until then.

Metallurgy

What deserves attention here is the fact that metallurgy occupies a central place in Ife. Oduduwa had a forge in his Royal palace (Ogun Laadin). Kings from different kingdoms installed their forges within the royal palace, showing the strong symbolic relationship between power and metallurgy.

Nok warrior, copper, Vth Century BC.

Contrary to what happened on other continents, the Iron Age in Africa would have preceded the Copper Age in some regions. The oldest indications documenting the transformation of iron ore in Africa date back to the third millennium BC. They are the archaeological sites of Egaro in eastern Niger and Giza and Abydos in Egypt. While the site of Buhen in Egyptian Nubia (- 1991), after working iron, became a « copper factory », the sites of Oliga in Cameroon (-1300) and Nok in Nigeria (-925) testify clearly of a dynamic metallurgical activity.

As we have seen, bronze casting techniques demonstrate the existence of a very advanced technological know-how. Ife will also be a major center for glass production, especially glass beads. The waste material of this ancestral production, made up of parts of crucibles covered with molten glass, will be looked for in the XIXth century by the inhabitants of the region, although the origin of the glass beads was neglected.

Recent archaeological excavations have shown that the settlements of this area are very ancient. But as we have seen, it was only at the beginning of the 2nd millennium that developments in the field of metallurgy would have made it possible to improve agricultural tools and generate surplus food. Yam, cassava, maize and cotton are cultivated here, the latter giving birth to an important cloth weaving industry.

View of contemporary Ife, celebrating ancient bronze heads.
Map of the remparts of Ife.

Hence, the city of Ife experienced a rapid demographic expansion thanks to this rise in agricultural productivity, itself the fruit of the mastery of an increased energy density allowing the transformation of « stones » (ores) into useful resources.

The medieval urbanization of Ife is today widely attested by the existence of numerous enclosures made of ditches and embankments, which seem to indicate the various spaces that have experienced a demographic concentration and the existence of a political body powerful enough to implement such great infrastructure programs.

Interesting, as a successful centralized state, Ife became increasingly a model for other states in the region and beyond. Several descendants and captains of Oduduwa founded their own kingdoms based on the same model and relying on the same legitimacy. The monarchical experience of Ife is exported with its cultural framework. The adé ilèkè, a crown of glass beads symbolizing royal power, is found in most monarchies in the region.

Remnants of the Sungbo Eredo Wall, close to Lagos.

In total, depending on the sources, an estimated 7 to 20 kingdoms make up the Yoruba world in the first half of the second millennium AD.

  • Oyo State in Nigeria was one of such powerful Yoruba city-states.
  • Another example, the Kingdom of Ketou, currently in the southeast of Benin, is supposed to have been founded around the XIVth century by an alleged descendant of Oduduwa. He is said to have left Ife with his family and other members of his clan and moved westward, eventually settling in the city of Aro, northeast of the city of Ketou. Aro quickly became too small for the growing population, and the decision was made to settle in Ketou. King Ede therefore left Aro with 120 families and settled in this city.
  • Another demonstration of Yoruba building science is the Sungbo Eredo Wall, near the Nigerian capital Lagos, a system of walls and ditches built in the XIVth century and located southwest of the town of Ijebu Ode, in Ogun State, southwestern Nigeria. More than 160 km (100 miles) long, these fortifications, some as high as 20 meters (65 feet), consist of a smooth-walled ditch that forms an inner moat in relation to the walls that overhang it. The ditch forms an irregular ring (Map) around the lands of the ancient kingdom of Ijebu. This ring is about 40 km in the north-south direction and 35 km in the east-west direction, which is the equivalent of the Paris périphérique ! Invaded by vegetation, the construction today looks like a green tunnel.
Map of Nigeria. In red, the Sungbo Eredo Wall.

From Ife to the Kingdom of Benin

Kingdom of Benin and its regional influence.

In the XIVth century, Ife experienced a demographic collapse, characterized by the abandonment of certain enclosures and a strong advance of the forest into formerly residential areas. There was also a break in the transmission of know-how and artisan techniques.

This demographic collapse has been explained as the result of a Black Plague, according to some authors, who draw a parallel with the pandemic waves hitting Europe at the same period.

Part of the inhabitants of Ife were able to take refuge and bring their know-how in metallurgy to the Kingdom of Benin, which lasted for seven hundred years, from the XIIth century until its invasion by the British Empire at the end of the XIXth century. Benin was a coastal West African city-state dominated by the Edos, an ethnic group whose dynasty still survives today.

Its territory covers to present-day Benin, plus part of Togo and southwestern Nigeria, where today « Benin City », a historic port on the Benin River, is located. In the heart of the city, the royal residence with monumental proportions translated visually the importance given to political, spiritual and traditional power.

Benin City, a marvel

The social organization of the city impressed European visitors at the end of the XVth century. As a major regional economic trading pole, Benin was full of ivory, pepper and slaves. Benin offered the Europeans palm oil (the oil palm growing abundantly in the region). In exchange, they requested, and obtained guns, allowing the modernization of the Beninese armament.

Located in a plain, Benin City is surrounded by massive walls to the south and deep ditches to the north. Beyond the city walls, many other walls have been erected that organize the entire region of the capital into some 500 separate boroughs.

In 2016, an article published by The Guardian recounted the lost splendor of the city. The paper reported:

The Guinness Book of Records (1974 edition) described the walls of Benin City and its surrounding kingdom as the world’s largest earthworks carried out prior to the mechanical era. According to estimates by the New Scientist’s Fred Pearce, Benin City’s walls were at one point “four times longer than the Great Wall of China, and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops”.

Pearce writes that these walls “extended for some 16,000 km in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They covered 6,500 sq km and were all dug by the Edo people … They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet”.

Benin City in 1897.

Benin City was also one of the first cities to have a semblance of street lighting. Huge metal lamps, many feet high, were built and placed around the city, especially near the king’s palace. Fueled by palm oil, their burning wicks were lit at night to provide illumination for traffic to and from the palace.

When the Portuguese first “discovered” the city in 1485, they were stunned to find this vast kingdom made of hundreds of interlocked cities and villages in the middle of the African jungle.

Benin City in 1686.

In 1691, the Portuguese ship captain Lourenco Pinto observed:

“Great Benin, where the king resides, is larger than Lisbon; all the streets run straight and as far as the eye can see. The houses are large, especially that of the king, which is richly decorated and has fine columns. The city is wealthy and industrious. It is so well governed that theft is unknown and the people live in such security that they have no doors to their houses.”

In contrast, London at the same time is described by Bruce Holsinger, professor of English at the University of Virginia, as being a city of “thievery, prostitution, murder, bribery and a thriving black market made the medieval city ripe for exploitation by those with a skill for the quick blade or picking a pocket”.

African fractals

Benin City’s planning and design was done according to careful rules of symmetry, proportionality and repetition now known as fractal design. The mathematician Ron Eglash, author of African Fractals – which examines the patterns underpinning architecture, art and design in many parts of Africa – notes that the city and its surrounding villages were purposely laid out to form perfect fractals, with similar shapes repeated in the rooms of each house, and the house itself, and the clusters of houses in the village in mathematically predictable patterns.

As he puts it:

“When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganized and thus primitive. It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn’t even discovered yet.”

At the center of the city stood the king’s court, from which extended 30 very straight, broad streets, each about 120-ft wide. These main streets, which ran at right angles to each other, had underground drainage made of a sunken impluvium with an outlet to carry away storm water. Many narrower side and intersecting streets extended off them. In the middle of the streets were turf on which animals fed.

Houses are built alongside the streets in good order, the one close to the other,” writes the XVIIth-century Dutch visitor Olfert Dapper. “Adorned with gables and steps … they are usually broad with long galleries inside, especially so in the case of the houses of the nobility, and divided into many rooms which are separated by walls made of red clay, very well erected.”

Dapper adds that wealthy residents kept these walls “as shiny and smooth by washing and rubbing as any wall in Holland can be made with chalk, and they are like mirrors. The upper stores are made of the same sort of clay. Moreover, every house is provided with a well for the supply of fresh water”.

Family houses were divided into three sections: the central part was the husband’s quarters, looking towards the road; to the left the wives’ quarters (oderie), and to the right the young men’s quarters (yekogbe).

Daily street life in Benin City might have consisted of large crowds going though even larger streets, with people colorfully dressed – some in white, others in yellow, blue or green – and the city captains acting as judges to resolve lawsuits, moderating debates in the numerous galleries, and arbitrating petty conflicts in the markets.

The early foreign explorers’ descriptions of Benin City portrayed it as a place free of crime and hunger, with large streets and houses kept clean; a city filled with courteous, honest people, and run by a centralized and highly sophisticated bureaucracy.

Bronze plaque showing in the background the pillars of the Royal Palace decorated by other bronze plaques.

The city was split into 11 divisions, each a smaller replication of the king’s court, comprising a sprawling series of compounds containing accommodation, workshops and public buildings – interconnected by innumerable doors and passageways, all richly decorated with the art that made Benin famous. The city was literally covered in it.

The exterior walls of the courts and compounds were decorated with horizontal ridge designs (agben) and clay carvings portraying animals, warriors and other symbols of power – the carvings would create contrasting patterns in the strong sunlight. Natural objects (pebbles or pieces of mica) were also pressed into the wet clay, while in the palaces, pillars were covered with bronze plaques illustrating the victories and deeds of former kings and nobles.

At the height of its greatness in the XIIth century – well before the start of the European Renaissance – the kings and nobles of Benin City patronized craftsmen and lavished them with gifts and wealth, in return for their depiction of the kings’ and dignitaries’ great exploits in intricate bronze sculptures.

These works from Benin are equal to the very finest examples of European casting technique,” wrote Professor Felix von Luschan, formerly of the Berlin Ethnological Museum. Italian Renaissance artist “Benvenuto Celini could not have cast them better, nor could anyone else before or after him. Technically, these bronzes represent the very highest possible achievement.”

The fatal encounter with « civilization »

ife and benin african renaissance
British conquerors assembling their loot.

Following the Berlin Conference of 1885, where the British, Portuguese, Belgian, German, French, Italian and other European colonial powers shared Africa like a big chocolate cake that they intended to devour, in the name of the immutable laws of the freshly invented science of “geopolitics”, European invasions multiplied and gained in brutality.

Thus, following the king of Benin’s refusal to cede to the British the national monopoly on the production of palm oil and other products, Benin City was looted, burned and reduced to ashes during a British punitive expedition in 1897. The king (the oba) is arrested and forced into exile and thousands of beautiful « bronzes of Benin », though less realistic than those of Ife, are stolen, sold and partly lost.

They end up on the art market and in museums, including the British Museum (700 objects) and the Berlin Museum of Ethnology (500 pieces). The British government itself sells some of them « to cover the cost of the expedition« .

So, while some clearly entered history with their beautiful art, others exited civilization with their barbarian crimes.

Summary bibliography:

  • Ifè, une civilisation africaine, Frank Willett, Jardin des Arts/Tallandier, Paris 1971;
  • General History of Africa, Présence africaines/Edicef/Unesco, Paris 1987;
  • Atlas historique de l’Afrique, Editions du Jaguar, Paris 1988;
  • L’Afrique ancienne, de l’Acus au Zimbabwe, under the direction of François-Xavier Fauvelle, Belin/Humensis, Paris 2018.
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