Étiquette : Humboldt
L’ombra di Vernadsky nella Sant’Anna di Leonardo da Vinci

Di Karel Vereycken
(First published in Italian on the italian Movisol website)
Nel marzo del 1821, il poeta inglese Percy Bysshe Shelley concluse il suo scritto « Difesa della poesia » con questo concetto visionario:
«I poeti sono i gerofanti di un’ispirazione non percepita, gli specchi delle ombre gigantesche che il futuro getta sul presente, le parole che esprimono ciò che non capiscono, le trombe che chiamano a battaglia e non sentono ciò che ispirano, l’influenza che non è mossa, ma muove. I poeti sono i legislatori non riconosciuti del mondo.»
Ci proponiamo di esaminare qui, da questo punto di vista, il capolavoro di Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519, « La Vergine con Bambino e Sant’Anna », attualmente al Louvre).
Non ci si stanca mai di contemplare questo capolavoro. Il dipinto raffigura Sant’Anna, sua figlia Maria e Gesù Bambino che abbracciano un agnello sacrificale, simbolo della sua missione: liberare l’umanità dal peccato originale.
Leonardo da Vinci non creò questo dipinto per un principe, un duca, un cardinale o un papa, ma per se stesso, e come tale lo lasciò in eredità all’umanità.
Dopo aver esaminato le ricerche più recenti, Vincent Delieuvin , lo storico francese del Louvre, giunse nel 2000 a questa sorprendente conclusione: Leonardo accolse con favore il ritorno del regime repubblicano a Firenze, di cui Sant’Anna era la protettrice.1
Benché l’opera sia rimasta praticamente incompiuta alla sua morte nel 1519, sappiamo che Leonardo da Vinci iniziò a lavorarci nel 1503 (all’età di 51 anni), mentre viveva a Firenze. Re Francesco I non rubò il dipinto, ma rubò il suo creatore, che lo portò con sé in Francia per completarlo.
Lo spettatore è immediatamente colpito da un potente, quasi inquietante, senso di movimento, da una sensazione di amore supremo e di grande bellezza. Pur raffigurando delle figure delle Sacre Scritture (Sant’Anna, la Vergine Maria, Cristo) anziché illustrare una particolare sequenza liturgica (che, peraltro, non esiste), l’opera scaturisce chiaramente da una profonda concezione filosofica.
Cercherò di convincervi che esiste un « lungo arco storico » , una coerenza intellettuale tra persone e menti che non si sono mai incrociate e non si sono mai parlate, ma le cui intuizioni e i cui progressi epistemologici coincidono.
Il capolavoro di Leonardo da Vinci appare, a mio avviso, come una sorta di anello mancante tra la visione di Dio e della creazione di Niccolò Cusano e il concetto di « noosfera » di Vladimir Vernadsky, passando per l’idea di « cosmo » di Alexander von Humboldt. A prima vista, questo potrebbe sembrare azzardato, ma permettetemi di approfondire.
Un’unità
Cosa si può mai unire questi quattro brillanti intellettuali, Cusano, Leonardo da Vinci, Alexander von Humboldt e Vernadsky? Tutti e quattro erano convinti che l’universo fosse un tutto vivente, unificato e armonioso.

Nel suo trattato *Sulla dotta ignoranza* (1440), il cardinale tedesco Niccolò Cusano (1401-1464) , pensatore di spicco e figura di riferimento nei grandi concili ecumenici, nonché nel Rinascimento italiano ed europeo, inizia con questo simbolo: Dio è il « massimo assoluto » e l’unità perfetta ( unio ). In quest’unità, tutte le distanze, le divisioni e le contraddizioni si trasformano e si fondono nell’unione. L’Universo è l’immagine contratta di quest’unità e di questo massimo assoluto. Come uno specchio, è il massimo « contratto » perché non comprende tutte le cose, ma solo tutte le cose al di fuori di Dio, tutte le cose create. Il filosofo usa i termini *complicatio * (avvolgimento) ed *explicatio* (svolgimento) per spiegare che tutte le cose sono avvolte in Dio (la fonte) e dispiegate nel mondo. Il mondo, il cosmo e il tempo geologico sono lo svolgimento dell’unità di Dio.

Sulle orme di Cusano, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) affermò con forza: « Comprendete che ogni cosa è connessa a ogni altra ». Per lui, il progresso significava unificare campi diversi come l’arte, l’anatomia e l’ingegneria in una comprensione completa e coerente. L’artista-ingegnere incoraggiò i suoi contemporanei a imparare a percepire i legami che uniscono la natura, l’arte, la scienza e l’anima umana. L’osservazione permise a Leonardo di scoprire le cause invisibili dietro gli effetti visibili e di immaginare e verificare ipotesi creative. In particolare, postulò che il corpo umano potesse essere una versione in miniatura (microcosmo) della Terra (macrocosmo), osservando che la ramificazione dei vasi sanguigni nell’uomo rispecchia gli affluenti dei fiumi, così come i movimenti del corpo imitano le maree. A suo avviso, la Terra è un organismo vivente con « carne » (il suolo), « ossa » (gli strati rocciosi) e « sangue » (le vene d’acqua). Studiò il volo degli uccelli e il movimento dell’acqua, convinto che entrambi obbedissero alle stesse leggi della fisica dei fluidi. L’arte è una scienza e la scienza è un’arte, entrambe strumenti per comprendere le leggi fondamentali del mondo. Per Leonardo da Vinci, i pittori dovevano possedere l’intero cosmo nella mente e nelle mani per riflettere veramente la bellezza, l’armonia e la complessità della natura. Per lui, il movimento è l’essenza stessa di un universo vivo e in continua espansione. Studiò i motivi a spirale presenti in ogni cosa, dai fiori ai riccioli dei capelli ai vortici dell’acqua, nel tentativo di comprendere come la forza vitale generi forme diverse. Infine, considerava la stagnazione una forma di declino, osservando che « il ferro arrugginisce per mancanza di utilizzo » e che « l’inazione prosciuga il vigore della mente ».

Anche il naturalista e rivoluzionario tedesco Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) si sforzò di comprendere come i vari fenomeni naturali, nonostante la loro apparente indipendenza, formino un sistema armonioso e unificato. Parlò di un « sistema terrestre » in cui clima, flora, fauna e vita umana sono interdipendenti. Humboldt credeva che esistesse un « legame intrinseco » tra il generale e il particolare, che gli permetteva di percepire l’interconnessione tra diverse regioni e climi. Nella sua ultima opera in cinque volumi, Cosmos (1845-1858), descrisse la natura come un « soffio di vita » e un « tutto organico », e vide l’intero universo – fisico e celeste – come un « sistema magnificamente ordinato e armonioso ». Come Cusano e Leonardo da Vinci, sostenne che una comprensione scientifica dei processi naturali accresce il nostro apprezzamento per la loro bellezza.

Per il geofisico russo-ucraino Vladimir Vernadsky (1863-1945) , la vita è eterna e inseparabile dal cosmo, non solo dalla Terra. Considerava la materia vivente come un « fenomeno cosmico » sorto altrove o da sempre esistente, che plasma l’ambiente chimico dei pianeti. La biosfera circonda la Terra come un « involucro saturo di vita », dove organismi viventi e materia inerte interagiscono costantemente, inseparabilmente e dinamicamente. La fase successiva dell’evoluzione è descritta come la transizione dalla biosfera alla « noosfera », dove l’attività umana razionale, la scienza e la tecnologia diventano la principale forza geologica che modella il pianeta. Vernadsky era convinto che il futuro dell’umanità dipendesse dal riconoscimento di questa unità, suggerendo che il pensiero umano fosse una naturale estensione dei processi geologici e cosmici.
Ora diamo un’occhiata al dipinto
È tenendo presente questo « lungo arco di storia » che l’osservatore attento può scorgere l’ombra di Vernadsky nella Sant’Anna di Leonardo.
Decifrare:

- Lo sfondo del dipinto raffigura creste scoscese dall’aspetto preistorico, ispirate agli studi di Leonardo sulle Dolomiti e sulle Alpi. Questo paesaggio arido, roccioso, quasi lunare, è stato descritto dagli storici come « fantastico » o « metafisico ». Come testimoniano i suoi taccuini, Leonardo era interessato a rappresentare i movimenti « invisibili » , non solo delle anime, ma anche di fenomeni fisici come il tempo, e più specificamente, il tempo geologico. Come si sono formate le montagne, ad esempio? Per altri, questo paesaggio « morto » o lunare dello sfondo – ciò che Vernadsky chiamerebbe « litosfera » – serve solo a mettere in risalto gli altri elementi della composizione.
- Di fronte a questo paesaggio, sulla destra, si erge un albero, la prima indicazione della biosfera, ma una semplice tappa in un processo evolutivo di sviluppo accelerato del cosmo.
- Di seguito, l’agnello (simbolo religioso del sacrificio di Cristo) rappresenterebbe una forma superiore di coscienza di questa biosfera.
- Poi appare Gesù, che, nella sua incarnazione come bambino, rappresenta solo una sorta di coscienza ingenua, una mera potenzialità per il suo sviluppo futuro.
- La Vergine Maria è raffigurata in una posa paradossale, che illustra perfettamente ciò che il pensatore americano Lyndon LaRouche definì un « cambiamento a metà movimento » , ovvero un momento ambiguo di indecisione tra movimenti apparentemente opposti. Il gesto maestoso, amorevole e protettivo di Maria, e il suo abbraccio a Gesù, coincidono con il suo profondo desiderio di concedergli tutta la libertà di movimento necessaria per compiere la sua sacra missione.
- Sant’Anna, sulla vetta, colma di gioia divina, sorride mentre contempla il gesto aggraziato di sua figlia Maria e l’amore che ella nutre per Cristo. Gioisce di essere, in un certo senso, l’anima « noosferica » consapevole di un Cosmo divino e vivente, dove il Creatore concepisce incessantemente nuove forme per la Sua creazione e gradi sempre più elevati di consapevolezza della Sua stessa natura creativa. Gli allineamenti circolari delle catene montuose lunari risuonano visivamente con gli anelli armoniosi formati da braccia e vesti in una spirale a cascata.
Anche scrittrici come Viviane Forrester , il cui lavoro2 è contaminato da perniciose interpretazioni moderniste e freudiane, e che affermano erroneamente che siamo ingannati dalla « sciocca » gentilezza di Maria (p. 19), riconoscono tuttavia intuitivamente che c’è qualcosa di molto speciale in quest’opera, una sorta di unità che la scrittrice descrive, in mancanza di una parola migliore, come « organica ».
Quando scopriamo queste figure, scrive, « percepiamo chiaramente che si tratta di organismi viventi all’interno di un paesaggio, un organismo vivente. L’organico nell’organico » (p. 12).
Questo momento organico, osserva, appare allo spettatore come un « momento congelato » di un « movimento transitorio » .
«Il loro respiro successivo, quello che segue, sembra più importante, più vitale, più sospeso di qualsiasi trama, di qualsiasi storia. E la loro presenza tangibile e fragile è simile a quella delle montagne, che respirano anch’esse.» (p. 13)
La nascita di un fungo

L’eccessiva enfasi posta sul fatto che Leonardo da Vinci fosse un genio « autodidatta » ha in qualche modo trascurato la ricerca sulle influenze intellettuali di cui ha beneficiato.
La sua prima esperienza fu l’apprendistato presso Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-1488) , la cui bottega fiorentina era modellata su quella del suo precettore, il dotto scultore Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) , dove gli studenti studiavano astronomia, poesia, architettura, scultura, pittura, fusione del bronzo, metallurgia, chimica, anatomia e leggevano i classici.
In seguito, a Milano, come pittore di corte, Leonardo fu « adottato » dalla giovane Cecilia Gallerani (1473-1536) , amante prediletta (ma non l’ultima) del duca Ludovico Sforza , detto Ludovico il Moro, duca di Milano.
Nacque a Siena in una famiglia numerosa, il cui padre, Fazio Gallerani, non era un nobile ma ricoprì diverse posizioni importanti alla corte di Milano, in particolare quella di ambasciatore presso le repubbliche di Firenze e Lucca.
Cecilia, insieme ai suoi sei fratelli, ricevette un’istruzione in latino e letteratura. È nota soprattutto per aver ispirato il dipinto di Leonardo da Vinci « Dama con l’ermellino » (circa 1489), un’opera in cui il senso del movimento prevale già sulla rappresentazione statica. Si narra che, durante una seduta, invitò Leonardo a unirsi al circolo letterario che ospitava a Palazzo Carmagnola, dove presiedeva dibattiti intellettuali con filosofi, poeti e musicisti.
Compositrice di opere musicali e poetiche, oratrice in latino e italiano fin dall’età di 16 anni, rinomata per il suo spirito e la sua erudizione, è considerata una delle donne più colte del Rinascimento italiano.
Benché quasi tutta la sua opera sia andata perduta, rimane nella nostra memoria come una figura di spicco della lingua italiana, grazie alla sua maestria nella letteratura e nella poesia.

Il poeta di corte Bernardo Bellincioni (1452-1492) , amico di Leonardo, ne elogiò il talento letterario, arrivando a paragonarla alla celebre poetessa greca Saffo, che si dice abbia ispirato Platone.
La Corte di Milano e i suoi mecenati attrassero e incoraggiarono anche altri artisti e scienziati, tra cui l’architetto Donato Bramante, il matematico e amico di Leonardo da Vinci, Luca Pacioli, la dotta duchessa Beatrice d’Este, il poeta Bernardo Bellincioni e l’umanista e pedagogista Francesco Filelfo.
Cecilia Gallerani fece conoscere a Leonardo da Vinci le idee di Cusano? Non lo sappiamo, ma senza dubbio aveva sia la capacità che l’opportunità di farlo.

Il Codice Trivulziano di Leonardo (1487-1490), compilato a Milano in questo periodo, segna una svolta. Fino ad allora, l’artista aveva spesso sostenuto con veemenza la superiorità della pittura rispetto alla poesia. Tuttavia, dopo la sua frequentazione con Cecilia, il Codice Trivulziano rivela il suo desiderio di migliorare drasticamente le sue capacità letterarie, fino ad allora piuttosto modeste, compilando lunghe liste di parole erudite, inclusi termini latini, tratti da autorevoli fonti lessicali e grammaticali. A quanto pare, considerava questo un prerequisito che gli avrebbe permesso di descrivere con precisione scientifica i fenomeni che avrebbe scoperto in seguito.
Circa vent’anni dopo la morte di Leonardo da Vinci, si narra che l’orafo e scultore Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571) abbia dichiarato:
«Non mancherò di riferire le parole che ho sentito pronunciare dal re a proposito di lui. Il re disse che non pensava ci fosse mai stato un uomo che sapesse tanto quanto Leonardo, non solo di scultura, di pittura e di architettura, ma anche di filosofia, dove eccelleva.»3
Come ha concluso un ricercatore:
«L’unità epistemologica di Leonardo da Vinci consente di accedere a una prospettiva più elevata. Non solo accresce la nostra propensione all’empatia autentica e alla profonda comprensione (essenziali nella società pluralistica odierna), ma ci consente anche di accedere a una forma di libertà sociale e intellettuale. È un metodo per acquisire una comprensione più completa della condizione umana; in breve, per ricevere una vera istruzione.»
Il mondo ha bisogno di nuove Cecilia Gallerani e nuovi Leonardo da Vinci. Sei pronto ad accettare questa sfida?
- Vincent Delieuvin, La Vergine, il Bambino Gesù e Sant’Anna, nota come Sant’Anna, sito web del Louvre.
https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010066107 ↩︎ - Al Louvre con Viviane Forrester, La Vergine con Bambino e Sant’Anna , dossier preparato da Cécile Scailliérez, Servizio Culturale del Louvre, Symogy, Editions d’Art, Parigi, 2000. ↩︎
- Marianne Tregouët , Cellini alla corte di Francesco I (1540-1545): I meccanismi di una disgrazia , dicembre 2024, HAL Id: dumas-04797814 https://dumas.ccsd.cnrs.fr/dumas-04797814v1 ↩︎
The Shadow of Vernadsky in Leonardo’s Virgin and Child with Saint Anne

In march 1821, the English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, concluded his poem « A defense of Poetry » with a visionary concept:
« Poets are the hierophants of an unapprehended inspiration; the mirrors of the gigantic shadows which futurity casts upon the present; the words which express what they understand not; the trumpets which sing to battle, and feel not what they inspire; the influence which is moved not, but moves. Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world. »
We examine here, from that standpoint, Leonardo da Vinci‘s masterwork The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne.
One never gets tired of looking at “The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne”, Leonardo’s superb masterpiece in the Louvre. Formally, the painting depicts Saint Anne, her daughter the Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus. Christ is shown embracing a sacrificial lamb symbolizing the mission he took on to liberate mankind from the original sin.
Remarkably, Leonardo didn’t make this painting for a Prince, not for a Duke, not for a Cardinal, nor for a Pope, but for himself, and as such, as a legacy for humanity.
Vincent Delieuvin, the French historian of the Louvre who cross-checked all the available documentation and hypothesis, arrives at the interesting but paradoxical conclusion that with this painting Leonardo wanted to give tribute to the return of the Florentine Republic:
« Since the Florentines rose up against Gautier de Brienne, Duke of Athens, on July 26, 1343, the feast day of Saint Anne, the city had devoted particular worship to the mother of the Virgin Mary, who was considered the protector of the Republic.
After the Medici were exiled in 1494, the honors bestowed upon the saint increased once again. Leonardo’s work fits perfectly into this context of the restoration of republican government, in which the artist participated with the execution of The Battle of Anghiari in 1503. »1
When the painting was finished is not known. In general, it is thought that Leonardo da Vinci (1454-1519) started working on it in 1503 when he lived in Florence at the age of 51. The French King Frances I, who bought the panel in 1518, didn’t steal the panel, just its author who brought it with him to France to finish it.
The viewer is immediately overwhelmed by a powerful and nearly disturbing sense of motion, supreme love and beauty. The scene itself, if it shows figures from the Holy scriptures (Anne, the Virgin Mary, Christ), rather than illustrating a given liturgical sequence, manifestly springs from a well of profound philosophical reflections.
I will try to convince you here there exists a “Long arch of History” of thinking and coherence between persons and minds that never met or spoke to each other, but whose intuitions and mindsets where congruent and oriented in the same directions. Leonardo’s masterpiece appears (in my view), as a sort of “missing link” between Nicolaus Cusanus’ vision of God and nature and Vladimir Vernadsky’s concept of the Noosphere, eventually via Alexander von Humboldt’s idea of the “Cosmos”. That might look wild and even silly at first glance, but please allow me to elaborate.
A Single Harmonic One
What unites the four towering intellectuals named Cusanus, Leonardo, Alexander von Humboldt and Vernadsky? All four were convinced that the universe is a single harmonic one.

The German cardinal Nicolas of Cusa (1401-1464), a thinker and major figure in the great ecumenical councils and the Italian and European Renaissance, begins his treatise On Learned Ignorance (1440) with a symbol. God is the “absolute maximum” and perfect unity (unio); in this unity, all distances, all divisions, all contradictions are transformed and merge into union. The universe is the contracted image of this absolute maximum and this absolute unity; it is not the absolute maximum, but, as in a mirror, the “contracted” maximum, for it does not comprise all things, but only all things outside of God, all created things. The thinker uses the terms complicatio (envelopment) and explicatio (unfolding) to explain that all things are enveloped in God (the source) and unfolded in the world. The world, the cosmos, and geological time are the unfolding of God’s unity.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), following in the footsteps of Cues, emphatically stated: “Understand that everything is connected to everything else.” For him, progress meant unifying different fields such as art, anatomy, and engineering into a comprehensive and coherent understanding. The artist-engineer invited his contemporaries to learn to perceive the links that unite nature, art, science, and the human soul. Observation allowed Leonardo to discover invisible causes rather than visible effects, and to imagine and test creative hypotheses. In particular, he postulated that the human body could be a miniature version (microcosm) of the Earth (macrocosm), observing that the branching of blood vessels in humans mirrors the tributaries of rivers, just as the movements of the body mimic the tides. In his view, the Earth is a living organism with “flesh” (the soil), ‘bones’ (rock strata), and “blood” (water veins). He studied the flight of birds and the movement of water, convinced that both obeyed the same fluid physics. Art is science, and science is art; both are tools for understanding the fundamental laws of the world. For Leonardo da Vinci, painters must possess the entire cosmos in their minds and hands in order to truly reflect the beauty, harmony, and complexity of nature. For the artist, movement is the very essence of a living, expanding universe. He studied the spiral patterns found in everything from flowers to curls of hair to whirlpools in water in order to understand how the life force generates different forms. Finally, he considered stagnation to be a form of decline, writing that “iron rusts from lack of use” and “inaction saps the vigor of the mind.”

The German naturalist and revolutionary Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) also sought to understand how various natural phenomena, despite their apparent independence, form a harmonious and unified system. He refers to an “earth system” in which climate, flora, fauna, and human life are interdependent. Humboldt believed in studying the “intrinsic link” between the general and the particular, which allowed him to perceive the interconnectedness of different regions and climates. In his ultimate multi-volume work, Cosmos (1845-1858), he described nature as a “breath of life” and an “organic whole,” and sought to describe the entire universe—physical and celestial—as a “magnificently ordered and harmonious system.” Like Cusanus and Leonardo da Vinci, he argued that a scientific understanding of natural processes increases our appreciation of their beauty.

Ukrainian-Russian geophysicist Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945) viewed life as eternal and inseparable from the cosmos, not just from Earth. He proposed that living matter was a “cosmic phenomenon” that had appeared elsewhere or had always existed, shaping the chemical environment of planets. He defined the “Biosphere” as a “life-saturated envelope” around the Earth, where living organisms and inert matter interact constantly, inseparably, and dynamically. Vernadsky described the transition from the biosphere to the “Noosphere” as the next stage of evolution, where rational human activity, science, and technology become the main geological force shaping the planet. He was convinced that the future of humanity depended on recognizing this unity, suggesting that human thought was a natural extension of geological and cosmic processes.
What do we see?
It is with this “Long arch of History” in mind, that the viewer can discover the “Shadow of Vernadsky » in Leonardo’s Saint Anne. Because, what does the viewer see?

- The background of the painting features sharp, prehistoric-looking crags inspired by Leonardo’s studies of the Dolomites and the Alps. This barren, rocky terrain, nearly lunar, has been described by historians as “fantastical” or “metaphysical”. As we know from his notebooks, Leonardo was interested in painting “invisible” movements, not only those of the souls, but also universal phenomena such as “time”, especially “geological” time. How did mountains arise, etc.? Others, correctly argue that the « dead » or lunar landscape of the background, what Vernadsky would call the “Lithosphere” serves to highlight the other elements of the composition.
- On the right, one could see the tree (the “biosphere”) as representing a step in an evolutionary process of the development of the cosmos.
- Beneath the tree, the lamb (in religious terms a symbol of Christ’s sacrifice to free mankind) also represents a higher form of conscience of that same “biosphere”
- Then appears Jesus, who, represented in his human incarnation, that of a child, represents only a sort of naive conscience, merely the potential for his further development.
- The Virgin Mary, is represented in a paradoxical position which is a perfect example of what the late Lyndon LaRouche identified as “mid-motion-change”, meaning an ambiguous instant of indecision between two or more contrary movements. Her majestic, loving and protecting gesture and embrace of Jesus coincides with her vivid desire to induce the boy all the freedom of movement he needs to fulfill his sacred mission.
- Saint Anne, on top, as a sort of self-conscious form of agapic love, looks down and smiles seeing the majestic gesture and love for Christ of her daughter Mary. She is happy to be the self-conscious “noospheric” soul of a divine and living Cosmos, where the creator permanently creates ever higher forms of creation and of consciousness of its own creative nature. The rings of lunar mountain chains resemble and resonate visually with the harmonic rings formed by arms and clothes in a cascade of aesthetic spiral action.
Even authors polluted by nasty modernist and Freudian misinterpretations such as Viviane Forrester2 who wrongly pretend we are mislead by an overwhelming sentiment of mildness of Mary, nevertheless acknowledge intuitively there is something very special in this work, a sort of unity Forrester brands, not finding a better name, “organic”. When we discover these figures, she writes:
“one clearly sees they are living organisms in the midst of a landscape, a living organism. Organic inside Organic.” (p. 12)
That organic moment, she observes, appears here to the viewer as a “frozen moment” of a “transitory movement”.
Their “next respiration, the one that will follow, seems more important, vital, more suspended than any intrigue, any narrative. And their [the figures] tangible presence, fragile, matches that of the mountains, who respire as well.” (p. 13)
The making of a genius
By over-emphasizing that Leonardo was a “self-taught” genius, research on the intellectual influences he underwent was somehow neglected.
The first chance he had, was to be an apprentice of Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-1488), whose Florence workshop was modeled on that of his tutor, the Florentine erudite sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) where pupils studied astronomy, poetry, architecture, sculpture, painting, bronze-casting, metal-works, chemistry, anatomy and read the Classics.

Then, in Milan, as a court painter, Leonardo was “adopted” by the young Cecilia Gallerani (1473 – 1536), the favorite (but not the last) mistress of the Duke Ludovico Sforza, known as Lodovico Il Moro, Duke of Milan.
She was born into a large family from Siena. Her father’s name was Fazio Gallerani. He was not a member of the nobility, but he occupied several important posts at the Milanese court, including the position of ambassador to the Republic of Florence and Republic of Lucca. Cecilia was educated alongside her six brothers in Latin and literature.
She is best known as the subject of Leonardo da Vinci’s painting Lady with an Ermine (c. 1489), already a painting where movement prevails over static representation. It is said that while posing for the painting, she invited Leonardo to be part of the literary circle she hosted at her residence in the Palazzo Carmagnola, where she engaged in intellectual debates with philosophers, poets, and musicians. Gallerani herself presided over these discussions.

Composing music, poetry and delivering orations in both Latin and Italian at the age of 16, renowned for her wit and scholarship, she was considered one of the most cultured women of the Italian Renaissance.
While nearly all of her works were lost, she is remembered as a “great light of the Italian language” due to her mastery of literature and verse. The court poet Bernardo Bellincioni (1452-1492) highly praised her literary talents, even comparing her to the famous Ancient Greek poetess Sappho which allegedly inspired Plato.
The Court of Milan and its patrons also attracted and protected other artists and scientists, among which the architect Donato Bramante, the mathematician and friend of Leonardo, Luca Pacioli, the duchess Beatrice d’Este, the poet Bernardo Bellincioni and the humanist educator Francesco Filelfo.

Did Cecilia Gallerani introduce Leonardo to the ideas of Cusanus? We don’t know, but she certainly had both the knowledge and ability to do so.
Leonardo’s Codex Trivulzianus (1487-1490), shows he was working hard to improve his modest literary education, through long lists of learned words, including Latin words, copied from authoritative lexical and grammatical sources.
The scientist reportedly saw this as a precondition that was going to allow him to describe with scientific precision the phenomena he was going to discover in the future.
About twenty years after Leonardo da Vinci’s death, the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571) is said to have remarked:
“I would not want to fail to repeat the words I heard the king say about him. The king said that he did not believe there had ever been a man who knew as much as Leonardo, not only in sculpture, painting, and architecture, but also in philosophy, in which he excelled.”
As one scholar concludes:
Leonardo’s “epistemological unity allows one to be elevated to a higher perspective. It not only increases our propensity for genuine empathy and understanding (much needed in today’s pluralistic society), but also for a kind of social and intellectual freedom. It is a method of acquiring a more holistic understanding of the human condition; or in short, of getting a real education.”
The world needs new Cecilia Gallerani’s and new Leonardo da Vinci’s. Are you ready to go there?
NOTES:
- Vincent Delievin, La Vierge, l’Enfant Jésus et sainte Anne, dit La Sainte Anne, website of the Louvre; ↩︎
- Au Louvre avec Viviane Forrester, La Vierge et l’Enfant avec sainte Anne, Léonard de Vinci, dossier établi par Cécile Scailliérez, Service Culturel du Louvre, Symogy, Editions d’Art, Paris, 2000. ↩︎
The republican struggle of David d’Angers and the statue of Gutenberg in Strasbourg

In the heart of downtown Strasbourg, a stone’s throw from the cathedral and with its back to the 1585 Chamber of Commerce, stands the beautiful bronze statue of the German printer Johannes Gutenberg, holding a barely-printed page from his Bible, which reads: « And there was light » (NOTE 1).
Evoking the emancipation of peoples thanks to the spread of knowledge through the development of printing, the statue, erected in 1840, came at a time when supporters of the Republic were up in arms against the press censorship imposed by Louis-Philippe under the July Monarchy.
Strasbourg, Mainz and China

Born around 1400 in Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg, with money lent to him by the merchant and banker Johann Fust, carried out his first experiments with movable metal type in Strasbourg between 1434 and 1445, before perfecting his process in Mainz, notably by printing his famous 42-line Bible from 1452.
On his death (in Mainz) in 1468, Gutenberg bequeathed his process to humanity, enabling printing to take off in Europe. Chroniclers also mention the work of Laurens Janszoon Coster in Harlem, and the Italian printer Panfilo Castaldi, who is said to have brought Chinese know-how to Europe. It should be noted that the « civilized » world of the time refused to acknowledge that printing had originated in Asia with the famous « movable type » (made of porcelain and metal) developed several centuries earlier in China and Korea (NOTE 2).
In Europe, Mainz and Strasbourg vie for pride of place. On August 14, 1837, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the « invention » of printing, Mainz inaugurated its statue of Gutenberg, erected by sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsenalors, while in Strasbourg, a local committee had already commissioned sculptor David d’Angers to create a similar monument in 1835.
This little-known sculptor was both a great sculptor and close friend of Victor Hugo, and a fervent republican in personal contact with the finest humanist elite of his time in France, Germany and the United States. He was also a tireless campaigner for the abolition of the slave trade and slavery.
The sculptor’s life
French sculptor Pierre-Jean David, known as « David d’Angers » (1788-1856) was the son of master sculptor Pierre Louis David. Pierre-Jean was influenced by the republican spirit of his father, who trained him in sculpture from an early age. At the age of twelve, his father enrolled him in the drawing class at the École Centrale de Nantes. In Paris, he was commissioned to create the ornamentation for the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the south facade of the Louvre Palace. Finally, he entered the Beaux-arts.

David d’Angers possessed a keen sense of interpretation of the human figure and an ability to penetrate the secrets of his models. He excelled in portraiture, whether in bust or medallion form. He is the author of at least sixty-eight statues and statuettes, some fifty bas-reliefs, a hundred busts and over five hundred medallions. Victor Hugo told his friend David: « This is the bronze coin by which you pay your toll to posterity. »
He traveled all over Europe, painting busts in Berlin, London, Dresden and Munich.
Around 1825, when he was commissioned to paint the funeral monument that the Nation was raising by public subscription in honor of General Foy, a tribune of the parliamentary opposition, he underwent an ideological and artistic transformation. He frequented the progressive intellectual circles of the « 1820 generation » and joined the international republican movement. He then turned his attention to the political and social problems of France and Europe. In later years, he remained faithful to his convictions, refusing, for example, the prestigious commission to design Napoleon’s tomb.
Artistic production

David’s art was thus influenced by a naturalism whose iconography and expression are in stark contrast to that of his academic colleagues and the dissident sculptors known as « romantics » at the time. For David, no mythological sensualism, obscure allegories or historical picturesqueness. On the contrary, sculpture, according to David, must generalize and transpose what the artist observes, so as to ensure the survival of ideas and destinies in a timeless posterity.
David adhered to this particular, limited conception of sculpture, adopting the Enlightenment view that the art of sculpture is « the lasting repository of the virtues of men », perpetuating the memory of the exploits of exceptional beings.

The somewhat austere image of « great men » prevailed, best known thanks to some 600 medallions depicting famous men and women from several countries, most of them contemporaries. Added to this are some one hundred busts, mostly of his friends, poets, writers, musicians, songwriters, scientists and politicians with whom he shared the republican ideal.
Among the most enlightened of his time were: Victor Hugo, Marquis de Lafayette, Wolfgang Goethe, Alfred de Vigny, Alphonse Lamartine, Pierre-Jean de Béranger, Alfred de Musset, François Arago, Alexander von Humboldt, Honoré de Balzac, Lady Morgan, James Fenimore Cooper, Armand Carrel, François Chateaubriand, Ennius Quirinus Visconti and Niccolo Paganini.
To magnify his models and visually render the qualities of each one’s genius, David d’Angers invented a mode of idealization no longer based on antique-style classicism, but on a grammar of forms derived from a new science, the phrenology of Doctor Gall, who believed that the cranial « humps » of an individual reflected his intellectual aptitudes and passions. For the sculptor, it was a matter of transcending the model’s physiognomy, so that the greatness of the soul radiated from his forehead.
In 1826, he was elected member of the Institut de France and, the same year, professor at the Beaux-Arts. In 1828, David d’Angers was the victim of his first unsolved assassination attempt. Wounded in the head, he was confined to bed for three months. However, in 1830, still loyal to republican ideas, he took part in the revolutionary days and fought on the barricades.

In 1830, David d’Angers found himself ideally placed to carry out the most significant political sculpture commission of the July monarchy and perhaps of 19th century France: the new decoration of the pediment of the church of Sainte-Geneviève, which had been converted into the Pantheon in July.
As a historiographer, he wanted to depict the civilians and men of war who built Republican France. In 1837, the execution of the figures he had chosen and arranged in a sketch that was first approved, then suspended, was bound to lead to conflict with the high clergy and the government. On the left, we see Bichat, Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David, Cuvier, Lafayette, Manuel, Carnot, Berthollet, Laplace, Malesherbes, Mirabeau, Monge and Fénelon. While the government tried to have Lafayette’s effigy removed, which David d’Angers stubbornly refused, with the support of the liberal press, the pediment was unveiled without official ceremony in September 1837, without the presence of the artist, who had not been invited.
Entering politics
During the 1848 Revolution, he was appointed mayor of the 11th arrondissement of Paris, entered the National Constituent Assembly and then the National Legislative Assembly, where he voted with the Montagne (revolutionary left). He defended the existence of the Ecole des Beaux-arts and the Académie de France in Rome. He opposed the destruction of the Chapelle Expiatoire and the removal of two statues from the Arc de Triomphe (Resistance and Peace by sculptor Antoine Etex).
He also voted against the prosecution of Louis Blanc (1811-1882) (another republican statesman and intellectual condemned to exile), against the credits for Napoleon III’s Roman expedition, for the abolition of the death penalty, for the right to work, and for a general amnesty.
Exile

He was not re-elected deputy in 1849 and withdrew from political life. In 1851, with the advent of Napoleon III, David d’Angers was arrested and also sentenced to exile. He chose Belgium, then traveled to Greece (his old project). He wanted to revisit his Greek Maiden on the tomb of the Greek republican patriot Markos Botzaris (1788-1823), which he found mutilated and abandoned (he had it repatriated to France and restored).
Disappointed by Greece, he returned to France in 1852. With the help of his friend de Béranger, he was allowed to stay in Paris, where he resumed his work. In September 1855, he suffered a stroke which forced him to cease his activities. He died in January 1856.
Friendships with Lafayette, Abbé Grégoire and Pierre-Jean de Béranger

David d’Angers was a real link between 18th and 19th century republicans, and a living bridge between those of Europe and America.
Born in 1788, he had the good fortune to associate at an early age with some of the great revolutionary figures of the time, before becoming personally involved in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
Towards the end of the 1820s, David attended the Tuesday salon meetings of Madame de Lafayette, wife of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette (1757-1834).
While General Lafayette stood upright like « a venerable oak », this salon, notes the sculptor,
« has a clear-cut physiognomy, » he writes. The men talk about serious matters, especially politics, and even the young men look serious: there’s something decided, energetic and courageous in their eyes and in their posture (…) All the ladies and also the demoiselles look calm and thoughtful; they look as if they’ve come to see or attend important deliberations, rather than to be seen. »

David met Lafayette’s comrade-in-arms, General Arthur O’Connor (1763-1852), a former Irish republican MP of the United Irishmen who had joined Lafayette’s volunteer General Staff in 1792.
Accused of stirring up trouble against the British Empire and in contact with General Lazare Hoche (1768-1797), O’Connor fled to France in 1796 and took part in the Irish Expedition. In 1807, O’Connor married the daughter of philosopher and mathematician Nicolas de Condorcet (1743-1794) and became a naturalized French citizen in 1818.

Lafayette and David d’Angers often got together with a small group of friends, a few « brothers » who were members of Masonic lodges: such as the chansonnier Pierre-Jean de Béranger, François Chateaubriand, Benjamin Constant, Alexandre Dumas (who corresponded with Edgar Allan Poe), Alphonse Lamartine, Henri Beyle dit Stendhal and the painters François Gérard and Horace Vernet.
In these same circles, David also became acquainted with Henri (Abbé) Grégoire (1750-1831), and the issue of the abolition of slavery, which Grégoire had pushed through on February 4, 1794, was often raised. In their exchanges, Lafayette liked to recall the words of his youthful friend Nicolas de Condorcet:
« Slavery is a horrible barbarism, if we can only eat sugar at this price, we must know how to renounce a commodity stained with the blood of our brothers. »
For Abbé Gregoire, the problem went much deeper:
« As long as men are thirsty for blood, or rather, as long as most governments have no morals, as long as politics is the art of deceit, as long as people, unaware of their true interests, attach silly importance to the job of spadassin, and will allow themselves to be led blindly to the slaughter with sheep-like resignation, almost always to serve as a pedestal for vanity, almost never to avenge the rights of humanity, and to take a step towards happiness and virtue, the most flourishing nation will be the one that has the greatest facility for slitting the throats of others. »
(Essay on the physical, moral and political regeneration of the Jews)
Napoleon and slavery

The first abolition of slavery was, alas, short-lived. In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte, short of the money needed to finance his wars, reintroduced slavery, and nine days later excluded colored officers from the French army.
Finally, he outlawed marriages between « fiancés whose skin color is different ». David d’Angers remained very sensitive to this issue, having as a comrade a very young writer, Alexandre Dumas, whose father had been born a slave in Haiti.
As early as 1781, under the pseudonym Schwarz (black in German), Condorcet had published a manifesto advocating the gradual disappearance of slavery over a period of 60 to 70 years, a view quickly shared by Lafayette. A fervent supporter of the abolitionist cause, Condorcet condemned slavery as a crime, but also denounced its economic uselessness: slave labor, with its low productivity, was an obstacle to the establishment of a market economy.
And even before the signing of the peace treaty between France and the United States, Lafayette wrote to his friend George Washington on February 3, 1783, proposing to join him in setting in motion a process of gradual emancipation of the slaves. He suggested a plan that would « frankly become beneficial to the black portion of mankind ».
The idea was to buy a small state in which to experiment with freeing slaves and putting them to work as farmers. Such an example, he explained, « could become a school and thus a general practice ». (NOTE 3)
Washington replied that he personally would have liked to support such a step, but that the American Congress (already) was totally hostile.
From the Society of Black Friends to the French Society for the Abolition of Slavery

In Paris, on February 19, 1788, Abbé Grégoire and Jacques Pierre Brissot (1754-1793) founded « La Société des amis des Noirs », whose rules were drawn up by Condorcet, and of which the Lafayette couple were also members.
The society’s aim was the equality of free whites and blacks in the colonies, the immediate prohibition of the black slave trade and the gradual abolition of slavery; on the one hand, to maintain the economy of the French colonies, and on the other, in the belief that before blacks could achieve freedom, they had to be prepared for it, and therefore educated.
After the virtual disappearance of the « Amis des Noirs », the offensive was renewed, with the founding in 1821 of the « Société de la Morale chrétienne », which in 1822 set up a « Comité pour l’abolition de la traite des Noirs », some of whose members went on to found the « Société française pour l’abolition de l’esclavage (SFAE) » in 1834.
Initially in favor of gradual abolition, the SFAE later favored immediate abolition. Prohibited from holding meetings, the SFAE decided to create abolitionist committees throughout the country to relay the desire to put an end to slavery, both locally and nationally.
Goethe and Schiller

In the summer of 1829, David d’Angers made his first trip to Germany and met Goethe (1749-1832), the poet and philosopher who had retired to Weimar. Several posing sessions enabled the sculptor to complete his portrait.
Writer and poet Victor Pavie (1808-1886), a friend of Victor Hugo and one of the founders of the « Cercles catholiques ouvriers » (Catholic Workers Circle), accompagnied him on the trip and recounts some of the pictoresques anecdotes of their travel in his « Goethe and David, memories of a voyage to Weimar » (1874).
In 1827, the French newspaper Globe published two letters recounting two visits to Goethe, in 1817 and 1825, by an anonymous « friend » (Victor Cousin), as well as a letter from Ampère on his return from the « Athens of Germany ». In these letters, the young scientist expressed his admiration, and gave numerous details that whetted the interest of his compatriots. During his stay in Weimar, Ampère added to his host’s knowledge of Romantic authors, particularly Mérimée, Vigny, Deschamps and Delphine Gay. Goethe already had a (positive) opinion of Victor Hugo, Lamartine and Casimir Delavigne, and of all they owed to Chateaubriand.
A subscriber to the Globe since its foundation in 1824, Goethe had at his disposal a marvellous instrument of French information. In any case, he had little left to learn about France when David and Pavie visited him in August 1829. On the strength of his unhappy experience with Walter Scott in London, David d’Angers had taken precautions this time, and had a number of letters of recommendation for the people of Weimar, as well as two letters of introduction to Goethe, signed by Abbé Grégoire and Victor Cousin. To show the illustrious writer what he could do, he had placed some of his finest medallions in a crate.
Once in Weimar, David d’Angers and Victor Pavie encountered great difficulties in their quest, especially as the recipients of the letters of recommendation were all absent. Stricken with despair and fearing failure, David blamed his young friend Victor Pavie:

« Yes, you jumped in with the optimism of a young man, without giving me time to think and get out of the way. It wasn’t as a coward or under the patronage of an adventurer, it was head-on and resolutely that we had to tackle the character. (…) You’re only as good as what you are, it’s a yes or no question. You know me, on my knees before genius, and imployable before power. Ah! court poets, great or small, everywhere the same!
(…) And with a leap from the chair where he had insensitively let himself fall: Where’s Schiller? I’d like to kiss him! His grave, where I will strike, will not remain sealed for me; I will take him there, and bring him back glorious. What does it matter? Have I seen Corneille, have I seen Racine? The bust I’m planning for him will look all the better for it; the flash of his genius will gleam on his forehead. I’ll make him as I love and admire him, not with the pinched nose that Dannecker (image below) gave him, but with nostrils swollen with patriotism and freedom.
Victor Pavie’s account reveals the republican fervor animating the sculptor who, faithful to the ideals of Abbé Grégoire, was already thinking about the great anti-slavery sculpture he planned to create:
« At that moment, the half-open window of our bedroom, yielding to the evening breeze, opened wide. The sky was superb; the Milky Way unfurled with such brilliance that one could have counted the stars. He (David) remained silent for some time, dazzled; then, with that suddenness of impression that incessantly renewed the realm of feelings and ideas around him:
‘What a work, what a masterpiece! How poor we are compared to this!Would all your geniuses in one, writers, artists, poets, ever reach this incomparable poem whose tasks are splendors? Yet God knows your insatiable pretensions; we flay you in praise… And light! Remember this (and his presentiments in this regard were nothing less than a chimera), that such a one as received a marble bust from me as a token of my admiration, will one day literally lose the memory of it. – No, there is nothing more noble and great in humanity than that which suffers. I still have in my head, or rather in my heart, this protest of the human conscience against the most execrable iniquity of our times, the slave trade: after ten years of silence and suffering, it must burst forth with the voice of brass. You can see the group from here: the garroted slave, his eye on the sky, protector and avenger of the weak; next to him, lying broken, his wife, in whose bosom a frail creature is sucking blood instead of milk; at their feet, detached from the negro’s broken collar, the crucifix, the Man-God who died for his brothers, black or white. Yes, the monument will be made of bronze, and when the wind blows, you will hear the chain beating, and the rings ringing' ».
Finally, Goethe met the two Frenchmen, and David d’Angers succeeded in making his bust of the German poet. Victor Pavie:
« Goethe bowed politely to us, spoke the French language with ease from the start, and made us sit down with that calm, resigned air that astonished me, as if it were a simple thing to find oneself standing at eighty, face to face with a third generation, to which he had passed on through the second, like a living tradition.
(…) David carried with him, as the saying goes, a sample of his skills.He presented the old man with a few of his lively profiles, so morally expressive, so nervously and intimately executed, part of a great whole that is becoming more complete with our age, and which reserves for the centuries to come the monumental physiognomy of the 19th century. Goethe took them in his hand, considered them mute, with scrupulous attention, as if to extract some hidden harmony, and let out a muffled, equivocal exclamation that I later recognized as a mark of genuine satisfaction.Then, by a more intelligible and flattering transition, of which he was perhaps unaware, walking to his library, he charmingly showed us a rich collection of medals from the Middle Ages, rare and precious relics of an art that could be said to have been lost, and of which our great sculptor David has nowadays been able to recover and re-immerse the secret.
(…) The bust project did not have to languish for long: the very next day, one of the apartments in the poet’s immense house was transformed into a workshop, and a shapeless mound lay on the parquet floor, awaiting the first breath of existence. As soon as it slowly shifted into a human form, Goethe’s hitherto calm and impassive figure moved with it. Gradually, as if a secret, sympathetic alliance had developed between portrait and model, as the one moved towards life, the other blossomed into confidence and abandonment: we soon came to those artist’s confidences, that confluence of poetry, where the ideas of the poet and the sculptor come together in a common mold. He would come and go, prowling around this growing mass, (to use a trivial comparison) with the anxious solicitude of a landowner building a house. He asked us many questions about France, whose progress he was following with a youthful and active curiosity; and frolicking at leisure about modern literature, he reviewed Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Nodier, Alfred de Vigny, Victor Hugo, whose manner he had seriously pondered in Cromwell.


(…) David’s bust, writes Pavie, was as beautiful as Chateaubriand’s, Lamartine’s, Cooper’s, as any application of genius to genius, as the work of a chisel fit and powerful to reproduce one of those types created expressly by nature for the habitation of a great thought. Of all the likenesses attempted, with greater or lesser success, in all the ages of this long glory, from his youth of twenty to Rauch’s bust, the last and best understood of all, it is no prevention to say that David’s is the best, or, to put it even more bluntly, the only realization of that ideal likeness which is not the thing, but is more than the thing, nature taken within and turned inside out, the outward manifestation of a divine intelligence passed into human bark. And there are few occasions like this one, when colossal execution seems no more than a powerless indication of real effect. An immense forehead, on which rises, like clouds, a thick tuft of silver hair; a downward gaze, hollow and motionless, a look of Olympian Jupiter; a nose of broad proportion and antique style, in the line of the forehead ; then that singular mouth we were talking about earlier, with the lower lip a little forward, that mouth, all examination, questioning and finesse, completing the top with the bottom, genius with reason; with no other pedestal than its muscular neck, this head leans as if veiled, towards the earth:it’s the hour when the setting genius lowers his gaze to this world, which he still lights with a farewell ray. Such is David’s crude description of Goethe’s statue.- What a pity that in his bust of Schiller, so famous and so praised, the sculptor Dannecker prepared such a miserable counterpart!
When Goethe received his bust, he warmly thanked David for the exchange of letters, books and medallions… but made no mention of the bust ! For one simple reason: he didn’t recognize himself at all in the work, which he didn’t even keep at home… The German poet was depicted with an oversized forehead, to reflect his great intelligence. And his tousled hair symbolized the torments of his soul…
David d’Angers and Hippolyte Carnot

Among the founders of the SFAE (see earlier chapter on Abbé Grégoire) was Hippolyte Carnot (1801-1888), younger brother of Nicolas Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), pioneer of thermodynamics and son of « the organizer of victory », the military and scientific genius Lazare Carnot (1753-1823), whose work and struggle he recounted in his 1869 biography Mémoires sur Lazare Carnot 1753-1823 by his son Hippolyte.
In 1888, with the title Henri Grégoire, évêque (bishop) républicain, Hippolyte published the Mémoires of Grégoire the defender of all the oppressed of the time (negroes and Jews alike), a great friend of his father’s who had retained this friendship.
For the former bishop of Blois, « we must enlighten the ignorance that does not know and the poverty that does not have the means to know. »
Grégoire had been one of the Convention’s great « educators », and it was on his report that the Conservatoire des Arts-et-Métiers was founded on September 29, 1794, notably for the instruction of craftsmen. Grégoire also contributed to the creation of the Bureau des Longitudes on June 25, 1795 and the Institut de France on October 25, 1795.

Hippolyte Carnot and David d’Angers, who were friends, co-authored the Memoirs of Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac (1755-1841), who acted as a sort of Minister of Information on the Comité de Salut Public, responsible for announcing the victories of the Republican armies to the Convention as soon as they arrived.
It was also Abbé Grégoire who, in 1826, commissioned David d’Angers, with the help of his friend Béranger, to bring some material and financial comfort to Rouget de Lisle (1860-1836), the legendary author of La Marseillaise, composed in Strasbourg when, in his old age, the composer was languishing in prison for debt.
Overcoming the sectarianism of their time, here are three fervent republicans full of compassion and gratitude for a musical genius who never wanted to renounce his royalist convictions, but whose patriotic creation would become the national anthem of the young French Republic.
Provisional Government
of the Second Republic

All these battles, initiatives and mobilizations culminated in 1848, when, for two months and 15 days (from February 24 to May 9), a handful of genuine republicans became part of the « provisional government » of the Second Republic.
In such a short space of time, so many good measures were taken or launched! Hippolyte Carnot was the Minister of Public Instruction, determined to create a high level of education for all, including women, following the models set by his father for Polytechnique and Grégoire for Arts et Métiers.
Article 13 of the 1848 Constitution « guarantees citizens (…) free primary education ».
On June 30, 1848, the Minister of Public Instruction, Lazare Hippolyte Carnot, submitted a bill to the Assembly that fully anticipated the Ferry laws, by providing for compulsory elementary education for both sexes, free and secular, while guaranteeing freedom of teaching. It also provided for three years’ free training at a teacher training college, in return for an obligation to teach for at least ten years, a system that was to remain in force for a long time. He proposed a clear improvement in their salaries. He also urged teachers « to teach a republican catechism ».
A member of the provisional government, the great astronomer and scientist François Arago (1886-1853) was Minister for the Colonies, having been appointed by Gaspard Monge to succeed him at the Ecole Polytechnique, where he taught projective geometry. His closest friend was none other than Alexander von Humboldt, friend of Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Friedrich Schiller.

He was another abolitionist activist who spent much of his adult life in Paris. Humboldt was a member of the Société d’Arcueil, formed around the chemist Claude-Louis Berthollet, where he also met, besides François Arago, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac, with whom Humboldt became friends. They published several scientific articles together.
Humboldt and Gay-Lussac conducted joint experiments on the composition of the atmosphere, terrestrial magnetism and light diffraction, research that would later bear fruit for the great Louis Pasteur.
Napoleon, who initially wanted to expel Humboldt, eventually tolerated his presence. The Paris Geographical Society, founded in 1821, chose him as its president.
Humboldt, Arago, Schoelcher, David d’Angers and Hugo

Humboldt made no secret of his republican ideals. His Political Essay on the Island of Cuba (1825) was a bombshell. Too hostile to slavery practices, the work was banned from publication in Spain. London went so far as to refuse him access to its Empire.
Even more deplorably, John S. Trasher, who published an English-language version in 1856, removed the chapter devoted to slaves and the slave trade altogether! Humboldt protested vigorously against this politically motivated mutilation. Trasher was a slaveholder, and his redacted translation was intended to counter the arguments of North American abolitionists, who subsequently published the retracted chapter in the New York Herald and the US Courrier. Victor Schoelcher and the decree abolishing slavery in the French colonies.
In France, under Arago, the Under-Secretary of State for the Navy and the Colonies was Victor Schoelcher. He didn’t need much convincing to convince the astronomer that all the planets were aligned for him to act.
A Freemason, Schoelcher was a brother of David d’Angers’s lodge, « Les amis de la Vérité » (The Friends of Truth), also known as the Cercle social, in reality « a mixture of revolutionary political club, Masonic lodge and literary salon ».
On March 4, a commission was set up to resolve the problem of slavery in the French colonies. It was chaired by Victor de Broglie, president of the SFAE, to which five of the commission’s twelve members belonged. Thanks to the efforts of François Arago, Henri Wallon and above all Victor Schoelcher, its work led to the abolition of slavery on April 27.
Victor Hugo the abolitionist

Victor Hugo was one of the advocates of the abolition of slavery in France, but also of equality between what were still referred to as « the races » in the 19th century. « The white republic and the black republic are sisters, just as the black man and the white man are brothers », Hugo asserted as early as 1859. For him, as all men were creations of God, brotherhood was the order of the day.
When Maria Chapman, an anti-slavery campaigner, wrote to Hugo on April 27, 1851, asking him to support the abolitionist cause, Hugo replied: « Slavery in the United States! » he exclaimed on May 12, « is there any more monstrous misinterpretation? » How could a republic with such a fine constitution preserve such a barbaric practice?
Eight years later, on December 2, 1859, he wrote an open letter to the United States of America, published by the free newspapers of Europe, in defense of the abolitionist John Brown, condemned to death.
Starting from the fact that « there are slaves in the Southern states, which indignifies, like the most monstrous counter-sense, the logical and pure conscience of the Northern states », he recounts Brown’s struggle, his trial and his announced execution, and concludes: « there is something more frightening than Cain killing Abel, it is Washington killing Spartacus ».
A journalist from Port-au-Prince, Exilien Heurtelou, thanked him on February 4, 1860. Hugo replied on March 31:
« Hauteville-House, March 31, 1860.
You are, sir, a noble sample of this black humanity so long oppressed and misunderstood.
From one end of the earth to the other, the same flame is in man; and blacks like you prove it. Was there more than one Adam? Naturalists can debate the question, but what is certain is that there is only one God.
Since there is only one Father, we are brothers.
It is for this truth that John Brown died; it is for this truth that I fight. You thank me for this, and I can’t tell you how much your beautiful words touch me.
There are neither whites nor blacks on earth, there are spirits; you are one of them. Before God, all souls are white.
I love your country, your race, your freedom, your revolution, your republic. Your magnificent, gentle island pleases free souls at this hour; it has just set a great example; it has broken despotism. It will help us break slavery. »
Also in 1860, the American Abolitionist Society, mobilized behind Lincoln, published a collection of speeches. The booklet opens with three texts by Hugo, followed by those by Carnot, Humboldt and Lafayette.
On May 18, 1879, Hugo agreed to preside over a commemoration of the abolition of slavery in the presence of Victor Schoelcher, principal author of the 1848 emancipation decree, who hailed Hugo as « the powerful defender of all the underprivileged, all the weak, all the oppressed of this world » and declared:
« The cause of the Negroes whom we support, and towards whom the Christian nations have so much to reproach, must have had your sympathy; we are grateful to you for attesting to it by your presence in our midst. »
A start for the better
Another measure taken by the provisional government of this short-lived Second Republic was the abolition of the death penalty in the political sphere, and the abolition of corporal punishment on March 12, as well as imprisonment for debt on March 19.
In the political sphere, freedom of the press and freedom of assembly were proclaimed on March 4. On March 5, the government instituted universal male suffrage, replacing the censal suffrage in force since 1815. At a stroke, the electorate grew from 250,000 to 9 million. This democratic measure placed the rural world, home to three quarters of the population, at the heart of political life for many decades to come. This mass of new voters, lacking any real civic training, saw in him a protector, and voted en masse for Napoleon III in 1851, 1860 and 1870.
Victor Hugo

To return to David d’Angers, a lasting friendship united him with Victor Hugo (1802-1885). Recently married, Hugo and David would meet to draw. The poet and the sculptor enjoyed drawing together, making caricatures, painting landscapes or « architectures » that inspired them.
A shared ideal united them, and with the arrival of Napoleon III, both men went into political exile.
Out of friendship, David d’Angers made several busts of his friend. Hugo is shown wearing an elegant contemporary suit.
His broad forehead and slightly frowning eyebrows express the poet’s greatness, yet to come. Refraining from detailing the pupils, David lends this gaze an inward, pensive dimension that prompted Hugo to write: « my friend, you are sending me immortality. »
In 1842, David d’Angers produced another bust of Victor Hugo, crowned with laurel, where this time it was not Hugo the close friend who was evoked, but rather the genius and great man.
Finally, for Hugo’s funeral in 1885, the Republic of Haiti wished to show its gratitude to the poet by sending a delegation to represent it. Emmanuel-Edouard, a Haitian writer, presided over the delegation, and made the following statement at the Pantheon:
The Republic of Haiti has the right to speak on behalf of the black race; the black race, through me, thanks Victor Hugo for having loved and honored it so much, for having strengthened and comforted it.
The four bas-reliefs
of the Gutenberg statue

Once the reader has identified this « great arch » that runs through history, and the ideas and convictions that inspired David d’Angers, he will grasp the beautiful unity underlying the four bas-reliefs on the base of the statue commemorating Gutenberg in Strasbourg.
What stands out is the very optimistic idea that the human race, in all its great and magnificent diversity, is one and fraternal. Once freed from all forms of oppression (ignorance, slavery, etc.), they can live together in peace and harmony.
These bronze bas-reliefs were added in 1844. After bitter debate and contestation, they replaced the original 1840 painted plaster models affixed at the inauguration. They represent the benefits of printing in America, Africa, Asia and Europe. At the center of each relief is a printing press surrounded by characters identified by inscriptions, as well as schoolteachers, teachers and children.
To conclude, here’s an extract from the inauguration report describing the bas-reliefs. Without falling into wokism (for whom any idea of a « great man » is necessarily to be fought), let’s point out that it is written in the terms of the time and therefore open to discussion:

Plaster model for the base of the statue of Gutenberg, David d’Angers.
« Europe
is represented by a bas-relief featuring René Descartes in a meditative attitude, beneath Francis Bacon and Herman Boerhaave. On the left are William Shakespeare, Pierre Corneille, Molière and Racine. One row below, Voltaire, Buffon, Albrecht Dürer, John Milton and Cimarosa, Poussin, Calderone, Camoëns and Puget. On the right, Martin Luther, Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz, Immanuel Kant, Copernicus, Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Hegel, Richter, Klopstock. Rejected on the side are Linné and Ambroise Parée. Near the press, above the figure of Martin Luther, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Rousseau and Lessing. Below the tier, Volta, Galileo, Isaac Newton, James Watt, Denis Papin and Raphaël. A small group of children study, including one African and one Asian.«

Plaster model for the base of the statue of Gutenberg, David d’Angers.
« Asia.
A printing press is shown again, with William Jones and Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron offering books to Brahmins, who give them manuscripts in return. Near Jones, Sultan Mahmoud II is reading the Monitor in modern clothes, his old turban lies at his feet, and nearby a Turk is reading a book. One step below, a Chinese emperor surrounded by a Persian and a Chinese man is reading the Book of Confucius. A European instructs children, while a group of Indian women stand by an idol and the Indian philosopher Rammonhun-Roy.«

« Africa.
Leaning on a press, William Wilberforce hugs an African holding a book, while Europeans distribute books to other Africans and are busy teaching children. On the right, Thomas Clarkson can be seen breaking the shackles of a slave. Behind him, Abbé Grégoire helps a black man to his feet and holds his hand over his heart. A group of women raise their recovered children to the sky, which will now see only free men, while on the ground lie broken whips and irons. This is the end of slavery.«

« America.
The Act of Independence of the United States, fresh from the press, is in the hands of Benjamin Franklin. Next to him stand Washington and Lafayette, who holds the sword given to him by his adopted homeland to his chest. Jefferson and all the signatories of the Act of Independence are assembled. On the right, Bolivar shakes hands with an Indian. »
America

We can better understand the words spoken by Victor Hugo on November 29, 1884, shortly before his death, during his visit to the workshop of sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, where the poet was invited to admire the giant statue bearing the symbolic name « Liberty Enlightening the World », built with the help of Gustave Eiffel and ready to leave for the United States by ship. A gift from France to America, it will commemorate the active part played by Lafayette’s country in the Revolutionary War.
Initially, Hugo was most interested in American heroes and statesmen: William Penn, Benjamin Franklin, John Brown and Abraham Lincoln. Role models, according to Hugo, who enabled the people to progress. For the French politician who became a Republican in 1847, America was the example to follow. Even if he was very disappointed by the American position on the death penalty and slavery.
After 1830, the writer abandoned this somewhat idyllic vision of the New World and attacked the white « civilizers » who hunted down Indians:
« You think you civilize a world, when you inflame it with some foul fever [4], when you disturb its lakes, mirrors of a secret god, when you rape its virgin, the forest. When you drive out of the wood, out of the den, out of the shore, your naive and dark brother, the savage… And when throwing out this useless Adam, you populate the desert with a man more reptilian… Idolater of the dollar god, madman who palpitates, no longer for a sun, but for a nugget, who calls himself free and shows the appalled world the astonished slavery serving freedom!«
(NOTE 5)
Overcoming his fatigue, in front of the Statue of Liberty, Hugo improvised what he knew would be his last speech:
« This beautiful work tends towards what I have always loved, called: peace between America and France – France which is Europe – This pledge of peace will remain permanent. It was good that it was done!«
NOTES:
1. If the phrase appears in the Book of Genesis, it could also refer to Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) a novel by Victor Hugo, a great friend of the statue’s sculptor, David d’Angers. We know from a letter Hugo wrote in August 1832 that the poet brought David d’Angers the eighth edition of the book. The scene most directly embodied in the statue is the one in which the character of Frollo converses with two scholars (one being Louis XI in disguise) while pointing with one finger to a book and with the other to the cathedral, remarking: « Ceci tuera cela » (This will kill that), i.e. that one power (the printed press), democracy, will supplant the other (the Church), theocracy, a historical evolution Hugo thought ineluctable.
2. It was the encounter with Asia that brought countless technical know-how and scientific discoveries from the East to Europe, the best-known being the compass and gunpowder. Just as essential to printing as movable type was paper, the manufacture of which was perfected in China at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (around the year 185). As for printing, the oldest printed book we have to date is the Diamond Sutra, a Chinese Buddhist scripture dating from 868. Finally, it was in the mid-11th century, under the Song dynasty, that Bi Sheng (990-1051) invented movable type. Engraved in porcelain, a viscous clay ceramic, hardened in fire and assembled in resin, they revolutionized printing. As documented by the Gutenberg Museum in Mainz, it was the Korean Choe Yun-ui (1102-1162) who improved this technique in the 12th century by using metal (less fragile), a process later adopted by Gutenberg and his associates. The Anthology of Zen Teachings of Buddhist High Priests (1377), also known as the Jikji, was printed in Korea 78 years before the Gutenberg Bible, and is recognized as the world’s oldest book with movable metal type.
3. Etienne Taillemite, Lafayette and the abolition of slavery.
4. Victor Hugo undoubtedly wanted to rebound on the news that reached him from America. The Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic of 1862, which was brought from San Francisco to Victoria, devastated the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest coast, with a mortality rate of over 50% along the entire coast from Puget Sound to southeast Alaska. Some historians have described the epidemic as a deliberate genocide, as the colony of Vancouver Island and the colony of British Columbia could have prevented it, but chose not to, and in a way facilitated it.
5. Victor Hugo, La civilisation from Toute la lyre (1888 and 1893).























