Catégorie : Etudes Renaissance
- Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa: Le défi que nous lance la modernité de la Civilisation de l’Indus (FR en ligne);
- Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa : The challenging modernity of the Indus Valley Civilization (EN online);
- La Route de la soie maritime, une histoire de 1001 coopérations (FR en ligne);
- Cyrus le Grand, l’Iran et le dialogue des civilisations (FR en ligne);
- Cyrus the Great, Iran and the Dialogue of Civilizations (EN online);
- The Maritime Silk Road, a History of 1001 cooperations (EN online);
- Afghanistan: le pays des 1000 cités d’or et Aï Khanoum (FR en ligne)
- Afghanistan: the Land of a 1000 Golden Cities and Aï-Khanoum (EN online);
- Le « miracle » du Gandhara, lorsque Bouddha s’est fait homme (FR en ligne);
- The « miracle » of Gandhara, when Buddha turned himself into man (EN online);
- Derrière les chevaux célestes chinois, la science terrestre (FR en ligne);
- The Earthly Science behind China’s Heavenly Horsepower (EN online)
- Et l’Homme créa l’acier… (FR en ligne);
- Portraits du Fayoum: un regard de l’au-delà (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio);
- La pratique ancestrale d’annulation des dettes (FR en ligne).
- The Ancient Practice of Debt Cancelation (EN online)
- Bagdad, Damas, Cordoue, creuset d’une civilisation universelle (FR online).
- Mutazilisme et astronomie arabe, deux étoiles brillantes au firmament de la civilisation (FR en ligne). (EN online version).
- Qanâts perses et Civilisation des eaux cachées (FR en ligne). (EN online version).
- Renaissance africaine: la splendeurs des royaumes d’Ifè et du Bénin (FR en ligne) + (EN online)
- Sur la peinture chinoise et son influence en Occident (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio).
- L’invention de la perspective FR pdf (Fusion) + EN pdf (Fidelio)
- La révolution du grec ancien, Platon et la Renaissance (FR en ligne)
- The Greek language project, Plato and the Renaissance (EN online).
- Les Frères de la vie commune et la Renaissance du nord (FR en ligne)
- Moderne Devotie en Broeders van het Gemene Leven, bakermat van het humanisme (NL online)
- Devotio Moderna, Brothers of the Common Life, the cradle of humanism in the North (EN online)
- 1405: l’amiral Zheng et les expéditions maritimes chinoises (FR en ligne)
- Zhang He and the Chinese Maritime Expeditions (EN online)
- Jan van Eyck, la beauté comme prégustation de la sagesse divine (FR en ligne) + EN on line.
- Jan Van Eyck, un peintre flamand dans l’optique arabe (FR en ligne)
- Jan Van Eyck, a Flemish Painter using Arab Optics (EN online)
- Rogier Van der Weyden, maître de la compassion (FR pdf)
- Comment Jacques Cœur a mis fin à la Guerre de Cent Ans (FR en ligne)
- How Jacques Coeur put an end to the Hundred Years War (EN online);
- Hugo van der Goes et la Dévotion moderne (FR en ligne)
- A la découverte d’un tableau (FR en ligne)
- Avicenne, Ghiberti, leur rôle dans l’invention de la perspective à la Renaissance (FR en ligne) et EN online.
- ENTRETIEN Omar Merzoug: Avicenne ou l’islam des lumières (FR en ligne). (EN pdf file).
- Les secrets du dôme de Florence (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Schiller Institute archive website) + DE pdf (Neue Solidarität).
- Le Dome de Brunelleschi, un défi, un scandale, un exploit (Hors Série Beaux Arts Magazine, 2013)
- L’œuf sans ombre de Piero della Francesca (FR en ligne)
- The Egg Without a Shadow of Piero della Francesca (EN online pdf)
- EN AUDIO MILAN — Piero della Francesca at Milan Brera Pinacoteca;
- Uccello, Donatello, Verrocchio et l’art du commandement militaire (FR en ligne) et EN online.
- La Cène de Léonard, une leçon de métaphysique (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio).
- Léonard de Vinci : peintre de mouvement (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio).
- La Vierge aux rochers, l’erreur fantastique de Léonard (FR en ligne).
- EN AUDIO + TEXTE: Leonardo’s copy of The Last Supper in Tongerlo (EN onling)
- Le Cénacle de Meaux et l’humanisme chrétien à la Renaissance (FR en ligne);
- The Cenacle of Meaux and Christian Humanist in the Renaissance (EN online);
- Romorantin et Léonard ou l’invention de la ville moderne (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Executive Intelligence Review) + DE pdf (Neue Solidarität) + IT pdf (Movisol website).
- L’Homme de Vitruve de Léonard de Vinci (FR en ligne) + EN online.
- Léonard en résonance avec la peinture traditionnelle chinoise — entretien avec Le Quotidien du Peuple. (en ligne: texte chinois suivi des traductions FR + EN).
- Raphaël, entre mythe et réalité (FR pdf + EN pdf)
- Raphaël 1520-2020 : ce que nous apprend « L’Ecole d’Athènes » (FR en ligne).
- Raphael 1520-2020: What Humanity can learn from The School of Athens (EN online);
- AUDIO: Raphael‘s cartoon for « The School of Athens » (EN online);
- Jacob Fugger « The Rich », father of financial fascism (EN online);
- Jacob Fugger « Le Riche », père du fascisme financier (FR en ligne);
- Comment la folie d’Erasme sauva notre civilisation (FR en ligne) + NL pdf (Agora Erasmus) + EN pdf (Schiller Institute Archive Website) + DE pdf (Neue Solidarität).
- Hoe Erasmus zotheid onze beschaving redde (NL pdf online);
- Le rêve d’Erasme: le Collège des Trois Langues de Louvain (FR en ligne)
- Erasmus‘ dream: the Leuven Three Language College (EN online)
- ENTRETIEN: Jan Papy: Erasme, le grec et la Renaissance des sciences (FR en ligne)
- Dirk Martens, l’imprimeur d’Erasme qui diffusa le livre de poche (FR en ligne).
- 1512-2012 : Mercator et Frisius, des cosmographes aux cosmonautes + NL pdf (Agora Erasmus) + EN pdf (Schiller Institute Archive Website).
- La nef des fous de Sébastian Brant (FR en ligne), un livre d’une grande actualité !
- Avec Jérôme Bosch sur la trace du Sublime (FR en ligne);
- With Hieronymus Bosch, On the Track of the Sublime (EN, pdf online);
- Quinten Matsys en Da Vinci: dageraad van louterend gelach en creativiteit (NL online);
- Quinten Matsys et Léonard — L’aube d’une ère de rire et de créativité (FR en ligne);
- Quinten Matsys and Leonardo — The Dawn of the Age of Laugher and Creativity, (EN online);
- Квентин Массейс и Леонардо: на заре смехотворчества (RU pdf)
- Joachim Patinir et l’invention du paysage en peinture (FR en ligne).
- Joachim Patinir and the invention of landscape painting (EN online)
- Le Landjuweel d’Anvers de 1561 — Faire de l’art une arme pour la paix (FR en ligne)
- The 1561 Landjuweel of Antwerp that made art a weapon for Peace (EN online)
- Exposition de Lille : ce que nous apprennent les fabuleux paysages flamands (FR en ligne).
- Portement de croix: redécouvrir Bruegel grâce au livre de Michael Gibson (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio).
- ENTRETIEN Michael Gibson: Pour Bruegel, le monde est vaste (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio)
- Pierre Bruegel l’ancien, Pétrarque et le Triomphe de la Mort (FR en ligne) + EN online.
- A propos du film « Bruegel, le moulin et la croix » (FR en ligne).
- AUDIO: Bruegel‘s « Dulle Griet » (Mad Meg): we see her madness, but do we see ours? (EN)
- AUDIO: Bruegel‘s Theodicy: The Fall of the Rebel Angels. (EN)
- L’ange Bruegel et la chute du cardinal Granvelle (FR en ligne).
- Pieter Bruegel l’ancien, commentateur politique et pacifiste (FR en ligne).
- INTERVIEW: Leo Spaepen ontcijfert de code van Bruegel NL online;
- INTERVIEW Leo Spaepen deciphers Bruegel’s code EN online;
- Albrecht Dürer contre la mélancolie néo-platonicienne + EN pdf.
- How neo-Platonism gave Plato a bad name (EN pdf).
- Le jour où l’Eglise faillit interdire la polyphonie en musique (FR en ligne)
- La leçon d’économie de Shakespeare (FR en ligne);
- Shakespeare‘s lesson in Economics (EN online) ;
- Le combat inspirant d’Henri IV et de Sully + EN pdf (Schiller Institute Archives Website).
- La paix de Westphalie, une réorganisation financière mondiale (FR en ligne + EN online)
- Rembrandt, un bâtisseur de nations FR pdf (Nouvelle Solidarité).
- Rembrandt et la lumière d’Agapè (FR en ligne) : Rembrandt et Comenius pendant la guerre de trente ans.
- Rembrandt and the Light of Agapè (EN online)
- Rembrandt : 400 ans et toujours jeune ! (FR en ligne).
- Rembrandt: 400 years old and still young ! (EN online).
- Rembrandt et la figure du Christ (FR en ligne) + EN pdf + DE pdf.
- Le portrait d’Anslo de Rembrandt, la science de « peindre l’invisible » (FR en ligne);
- Rembrandt’s Anslo, the science of « painting the invisible » EN online;
- Vermeer, Metsu, Ter Borch, Hals, l’éloge du quotidien. FR pdf (Nouvelle Solidarité)
- Entre l’Europe et la Chine: le rôle du jésuite flamand Ferdinand Verbiest. (FR en ligne).
- Avec Leibniz et Kondiaronk, re-créer un monde sans oligarchie (FR en ligne)
- With Leibniz and Kondiaronk, re-inventing a world without oligarchy (EN online);
- Francisco Goya et la révolution américaine (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio) + ES pdf.
- Karel Vereycken et Karl Lestar : El Degüello de Goya (livre ES)
- Beethoven et le Meeresstille: initiation à une culture de la découverte (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Schiller Institute Archive Website) + DE pdf (Neue Solidarität).
- Enseignement mutuel: curiosité historique ou piste d’avenir? (FR en ligne);
- Mutual Tuition: an historical curiosity or a promise of a better future? (EN online)
- Le combat républicain de David d’Angers, la statue de Gutenberg à Strasbourg (FR en ligne)
- The Republican struggle of David d’Angers and the Gutenberg statue in Strasbourg (EN online)
- Hippolyte Carnot, père de l’éducation républicaine moderne (FR en ligne)
- Hippolyte Carnot, father of modern republican education (EN online)
- Enquête sur les origines de l’art contemporain (FR en ligne) + EN pdf.
- On the Origins of Modern Art, the Question of Symbolism (EN online)
- Victor Hugo et le colosse (FR en ligne);
- Victor Hugo and the awakening of the colossus (EN online);
- Avec le peintre James Ensor, arrachons le masque à l’oligarchie (FR en ligne);
- How James Ensor ripped off the mask of the Oligarchy (EN online)
- Les racines symbolistes des killer games (FR en ligne).
- Neo-Platonism and Huxley’s Doors of Perception (EN online);
- L’art moderne de la CIA pour combattre le communisme (FR en ligne).
- The Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF) – How the CIA « weaponized » Moder Art (EN online).
- M. Hockney, le génie artistique n’est pas une illusion optique ! FR pdf (Fusion) + DE pdf + EN pdf (21st Science & Technology).
- Gérard Garouste et La Source (FR en ligne).
- Rembrandt’s oil painting is back… in China ! (EN online).
- Ce que nous apprend l’expérience Trou-dans-le-Mur de Sugata Mitra (FR en ligne)
- The hidden lesson behing Sugata Mitra‘s Hole-in-the-Wall experience (EN online)
- La défense du patrimoine culturel de l’Humanité, clé de la paix mondiale (FR en ligne)
- Empathy, Sympathy, Compassion — World Heritage Key to World Peace (EN online)
Pieter Bruegel the Elder, political commentator and pacifist

Five centuries after his birth, the publication of new research seems (finally) to do justice to the great Flemish painter « Pieter Bruegel the Jolly » , known as the Elder (1525-1569).
Until now, it was all too common to hear him described as « an unclassifiable figure. » In 2024, art historian Mónica Ann Walker Vadillo did not hesitate to write in the History section of the newspaper Le Monde that, since Bruegel painted peasant feasts and weddings, art critics « came to regard him as an unrefined man and disdainfully nicknamed him ‘Bruegel the Peasant,' » while expressing surprise that so many « academics, humanists, and wealthy businessmen—who appreciated his work and collected his paintings » associated with him.
Fall of the Rebel Angels

In 2014, Tine Luk Meganck ‘s book, « Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Fall of the Rebel Angels. Art, knowledge and Politics on the Eve of the Dutch Revolt », especially with the last sentence of her title, had nevertheless reopened the debate on the political dimension of his work.
Meganck ventured a highly improbable hypothesis regarding the painting The Fall of the Rebel Angels (1562, Brussels Museum): the jealous angels, whom God punishes for conspiring against him, are supposed to represent the alliance of nobles, the middle classes, and the common people, led by William the Silent against the rule of the Spanish Empire. Consequently, the commissioner of the work, according to the expert, was most likely the famous Cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, one of the advisors to the regent Margaret of Parma and a fervent supporter of the persecution of heretics.
We have documented in an article why this interpretation seems unacceptable to us, as Cardinal Granvelle, a member of the « secret government, » was universally hated by the humanists of the time for his blind zeal in endorsing all the crimes of his masters.
Furthermore, no tangible proof exists that he commissioned any work from Bruegel. Certainly, he owned some, but apart from a « Flight into Egypt » (1563), a work devoid of any controversy, and a « View of the Bay of Naples, » a beautiful study inspired by drawings made during Bruegel’s trip to Italy, Granvelle was far from being « one of the greatest collectors » of Bruegel’s works, as is often repeated.
Landjuweel

That being said, the important contribution of Meganck’s book, let’s acknowledge it, was the recognition of the decisive influence of the Chambers of Rhetoric and the Antwerp Landjuweel of 1561, for understanding Bruegel’s visual language.
My friend, the late American art critic Michael Frances Gibson, had mentioned this possibility to me during an interview this author conducted with him.
He discusses this in his book The Carrying of the Cross (Editions Noêsis, Paris 1996), which was used in 2011 for the quite innovative film « Bruegel, the Mill and the Cross ».
In August 1561, Antwerp, where Bruegel resided, hosted an exceptional celebration, the Landjuweel, or national competition of the Chambers of Rhetoric.
In practice, the Antwerp Chamber « De Violieren« , in charge of organizing a festival that cost the city one hundred thousand crowns, operated as the literary division of the Guild of Saint Luke, the corporation that brought together painters, engravers, illustrators, architects, sculptors, cartographers, goldsmiths and printers.
It was there that people read in Flemish as well as in Latin or French, Plato, Homer, Petrarch, Erasmus and Rabelais, both during private gatherings and often, in public.
The first Bible in French? Printed in Antwerp in 1535 by the French humanist Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples (1450-1536), who published the first translations of the complete works of Nicholas of Cusa in Paris in 1514, three years before the publication, in the French capital, of the first edition of Erasmus‘s In Praise of Folly.
The Landjuweel of Antwerp stands historically as one of the most remarkable cultural renaissance events in European history. 2000 rhetoricians on horseback, from 10 cities, passed under 40 triumphal arches to the strident sounds of fifes, entering a city in full celebration. For a whole month, orators and poets, songwriters and actors competed without pausing for breath. Citizen’s were invited on every streetcorner to participate in polyphonic madrigals and chorusses. 5000 artists entertained close to a 100,000 viewers !

Bruegel had to follow them all the more since his dear friend Hans Frankaert (1520-1584), his friend and master Peeter Baltens (1527-1584), very well connected with the great local financiers who preferred commerce to war, as well as his first patron, the engraver Hieronymus Cock (1518-1570), were all involved in the organization of this event whose theme was peace and, two centuries before Kant and Schiller, this burning philosophical question: « What leads man most towards the arts? » This, then, was the bubbling cauldron of urban culture in which Bruegel was immersed from his beginnings.
Moreover, as Belgian historian Leen Huet details in her sumptuous biography of the artist (first published in Dutch in 2016 by Polis, then in French by CFC in Brussels in 2021), when he crossed the Alps, Bruegel was probably accompanied by the painter Maarten de Vos (1532-1603) and the cartographer Abraham Ortelius (1527-1598), a close friend of Christophe Plantin, the head of the largest printing house in Antwerp, the team having thousands of addresses of collectors in connection with the printing house Les Quatre Vents of Jérôme Cock, in Antwerp.
The « Bruegel Code »

The image of Bruegel as a political commentator, deliberately obfuscating his message to thwart the regime’s Gestapo agents who were lying in wait for him, and embracing the Erasmian philosophy of the Landjuweel to defend peace and mutual understanding, is further developed by the classical historian Leo Spaepen, whose recent book, Pieter Bruegel de oude, politiek commentator en pacifist. De Bruegel Code (published in Dutch by MER Books, 2025), has stirred enthusiasm.
A good pedagogue, Spaepen establishes a kind of code for deciphering, or at least fruitfully approaching, Bruegel’s visual language. Escaping the Aristotelian confines, the aim is to immediately discard formal and symbolic representations in favor of what I would call a metaphorical approach.
Narrative A and B
Each painting contains a « narrative A » and a « narrative B. » The former typically reflects a concern shared by the humanist and Erasmian community regarding the socio-political events of the time, where corruption and violent Spanish repression brought the Hispano-Burgundian Netherlands to the brink of revolt. The « narrative B » often depicts a scene from the Bible or scripture.
As with any metaphor, the paradox arising from the analogy between narrative A and B brings forth, not on the canvas but in the viewer’s mind, a range of clues allowing them to grasp where the painter intends to lead them.
Spaepen, whose courage, rigor, and audacity deserve high praise, has sufficiently delved into the political and cultural history of Bruegel’s era to formulate compelling hypotheses that illuminate his major works. By testing this cognitive approach, painting by painting, the author generates not a scholarly compendium of facts or evidence, but an extremely interesting « gestalt » of the painter, whose true genius has often been denied recognition. It is therefore impossible, in a simple article like this, to reproduce the full richness of this approach.
« Mad Meg »

Let us nevertheless look at an emblematic work by Bruegel, known by its nickname, Dulle Griet (« Margot the Enraged » or « Mad Meg » ), a work painted in 1563, not to please a patron, but to provoke discussions with his relatives during meals at his home, as was the custom at the time.
The painting is striking in its contradictions. In the foreground, against a backdrop of burning cityscapes, a woman, mad with rage, sword in hand, carries a basket filled with jewels and precious metalwork. Behind her, a cohort of unarmed women bravely strives to subdue and repel an army of monsters and devils.
Finally, at the intersection of the painting’s diagonals, a strange creature appears, reminiscent of Hieronymus Bosch ‘s Garden of Earthly Delights. A man carrying a large bubble on his back shakes his backside, from which silver coins fall, which some women hastily gather up.
As for narrative B, we find roughly the image that Bruegel had developed in a drawing used for a 1557 engraving representing one of the deadly sins, here rage ( Ira in Latin), again represented by a giant woman, with the subtitle: « Rage swells the lips and sours the character. It troubles the mind and blackens the blood. »
Spaepen also picks up on (p. 131) a great find by Leen Huet. The historian discovered that during the Landjuweel of Antwerp in 1561, the chamber of rhetoric of Mechelen had mentioned a « Griete die den roof haelt voor den helle » (a girl who goes to plunder hell), a figure perhaps taken from a play that is now lost.
Huet also mentions (p. 35) the Flemish proverb that says of an old harpy that she « could go and plunder hell and come back safe and sound. » At the same time, Huet notes (p. 48), the author Sartorius , in a collection of adages inspired by Erasmus, states a saying similar in spirit to the Dulle Griet sign:
« One woman alone makes a racket, two women cause much trouble, three women gather only to trade for an annual market, four women lead to strife, five women form an army, and against six women, Satan himself has no weapon to fight them. »
In reality, the status of urban women from the 15th century onwards in Flanders, with the beguinages, and especially in Brabant in the 16th century, was one of the most advanced in Europe1, probably explaining in part the concerns of some members of the male gender in the face of the growing power of women.
Granvelle

But Spaepen, a good observer, exonerates Bruegel from this kind of masculinist reaction by bringing back the reality of narrative A, the current political situation.
The painter, Spaepen believes, is denouncing here Cardinal Granvelle , zealous advisor to the regent Margaret of Parma, a woman torn between the general interest and submission to the tyranny of the Catholic Church, whose dogmas were instrumentalized by Madrid to plunder the country in order to repay the colossal debt of Charles V and Philip II to the Fugger bankers.
Personally, I thought for a moment that Bruegel had invented for the occasion an 8th deadly sin, « incitement to war » (Oorlogstokerij), but I am probably too much in the present.
In August 1561, disregarding Granvelle’s advice, Margaret had authorized the Guild of Saint Luke and the Violieren to organize the Antwerp Landjuweel to promote peace and mutual understanding. But immediately afterward, she yielded to pressure from Madrid by forbidding the publication of the proceedings of the Chambers of Rhetoric, which were accused of having united the entire country against the Emperor.

In 1563, the year Bruegel painted his Dulle Griet, the Council of Trent decided to curb polyphonic art by restoring the primacy of the sung text in music and prohibiting any ambiguity in a painting, linked to a role of propaganda, exactly as Granvelle wished.
In the painting « Mad Meg, » the strange creature in the center, draped in a red cloak, could very well be Cardinal Granvelle himself.
As Spaepen reminds us, Granvelle had just established a vast network of informants to hunt down heretics « even in the toilets. »
This targeted all those—Lutherans, Calvinists, Erasmians, or Anabaptists—who challenged the predatory grip of the regime. And yet, the money « shat out » by Granvelle is being recovered by women ready to plunder hell! Bruegel, not exactly kind to Mad Meg (Marguerite of Parma), could therefore be expressing his horror at this regent who has lost her mind, and especially at the idea that Flemish women, who had become so free and educated, could end up as informers for a totalitarian regime!
Familia Caritatis

Spaepen (p. 194) documents the strong influence exerted on Bruegel (who was not necessarily a member of the group) by the Familia Caritatis (Family of Charity), a philosophical and religious movement founded and led by Hendrik Niclaes (1502-1570), a prophetic and charismatic figure advocating peace and tolerance about whom little is known but who undoubtedly appeared to many, without reaching his wisdom and erudition, as a kind of successor to Erasmus.
Many humanists and a number of Bruegel’s acquaintances were in contact with this movement which, passing through England, would dissolve into the Quaker revolt against the Anglican Church.2
Plantin, considered the official printer of the Spanish regime, had the Familia Caritatis booklets (deemed heretical by the regime) printed (at night), with initial financial assistance for his printing press from Niclaes, himself a merchant. Niclaes’s major work, Terra Pacis, denounces the « Blind leading the Blind, » a theme also found in the work of Quinten Matsys‘s son (who fled the persecution), and later in Bruegel.
Niclaes draws upon Socrates and the philosophy of the Brethren of the Common Life , for whom selfless love (agape or caritas) should be the driving force of humankind. Another conviction he holds is that life is « a pilgrimage of the soul. »
As in the landscapes of Joachim Patinir, Homo Viator must constantly detach himself from earthly matters and move on. Through his free he must seek union with God by resisting earthly temptations. Inner peace—with oneself, with one’s conscience, and with the divine will—is the foundation of peace on Earth, an ideal that also clearly inspired the painter.
This is the true story, that of a great political commentator and resistance fighter of his time, a painter intellectually and spiritually committed to peace.
NOTES:
- See on this subject Myriam Greilsammer, L’envers du tableau : Mariage et maternité en Flandre médiévale , Armand Colin, 1990, as well as this author’s article on the Landjuweel. ↩︎
- These included the printers Christoffel Plantin and John Gailliart; the humanists Abraham Ortelius, Justus Lipsius, Andreas Masius, Goropius Becanus, and Benito Arias Montano; the poets Peeter Heyns, Jan van der Noot, Lucas d’Heere, Filips Galle, and Joris Hoefnagel; the theologian Hubert Duifhuis; the writer Dirck Volkertsz; Coornhert (right-hand man of William the Silent); the « familists » Daniel van Bombergen, Emanuel van Meteren, and Johan Radermacher; and the Antwerp merchants Marcus Perez and Ferdinando Ximines. ↩︎
AUDIO: Bruegel’s Fall of Empire (Icarus)

TO LISTEN TO THIS AUDIO, CLICK HERE TO OPEN WEBPAGE
Further information on Bruegel:
- Portement de croix: redécouvrir Bruegel grâce au livre de Michael Gibson (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio).
- ENTRETIEN Michael Gibson: Pour Bruegel, le monde est vaste (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio)
- Pierre Bruegel l’ancien, Pétrarque et le Triomphe de la Mort (FR en ligne) + EN online.
- A propos du film « Bruegel, le moulin et la croix » (FR en ligne).
- L’ange Bruegel et la chute du cardinal Granvelle (FR en ligne).
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s « Dulle Griet » (Mad Meg): we see her madness, but do we see ours? (EN)
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s Theodicy: The Fall of the Rebel Angels. (EN)
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s Fall of Empire (Icarus) (EN)
- AUDIO: What Bruegel’s snow landscape teaches us about human fragility (EN)
AUDIO: Goya asks us to make sure Truth raises again



AUDIO: What Bruegel’s snow landscape teaches us about human fragility

OPEN WEBPAGE TO LISTEN TO AUDIO: CLICK HERE

Further information on Bruegel:
- Portement de croix: redécouvrir Bruegel grâce au livre de Michael Gibson (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio).
- ENTRETIEN Michael Gibson: Pour Bruegel, le monde est vaste (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio)
- Pierre Bruegel l’ancien, Pétrarque et le Triomphe de la Mort (FR en ligne) + EN online.
- A propos du film « Bruegel, le moulin et la croix » (FR en ligne).
- L’ange Bruegel et la chute du cardinal Granvelle (FR en ligne).
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s « Dulle Griet » (Mad Meg): we see her madness, but do we see ours? (EN)
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s Theodicy: The Fall of the Rebel Angels. (EN)
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s Fall of Empire (Icarus) (EN)
- AUDIO: What Bruegel’s snow landscape teaches us about human fragility (EN)
AUDIO: Goya’s portrait of Bayeu

For a complete and detailed study of Goya’s life and work, see my article online in EN, FR and ES.



AUDIO – Bruegel’s Theodicy: The Fall of the Rebel Angels





Further information on Bruegel:
- Portement de croix: redécouvrir Bruegel grâce au livre de Michael Gibson (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio).
- ENTRETIEN Michael Gibson: Pour Bruegel, le monde est vaste (FR en ligne) + EN pdf (Fidelio)
- Pierre Bruegel l’ancien, Pétrarque et le Triomphe de la Mort (FR en ligne) + EN online.
- A propos du film « Bruegel, le moulin et la croix » (FR en ligne).
- L’ange Bruegel et la chute du cardinal Granvelle (FR en ligne).
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s « Dulle Griet » (Mad Meg): we see her madness, but do we see ours? (EN)
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s Theodicy: The Fall of the Rebel Angels. (EN)
- AUDIO: Bruegel’s Fall of Empire (Icarus) (EN)
- AUDIO: What Bruegel’s snow landscape teaches us about human fragility (EN)
Rembrandt’s Anslo, the science of painting the « invisible »
Cet article en FR
this article in RU see bottom of this page

Lecture of Karel Vereycken, painter-engraver and historian, at the Nov. 8-9 International Paris joint conference organized by Solidarité & Progrès and the Schiller Institute.
I want this presentation to be more like a kind of « workshop ». Therefore I ask people who “know” not to immediately jump in with their answers to my questions but allow people not yet familiar with this domain to have the opportunity to express themselves and bring up their hypothesis.
In commercial contemporary art, the only science involved is to give up any form of rationality and to flap out any emotion which takes over the artist, often more “down-lifting” than “up-lifting”. But in well composed works of art, based on metaphorical paradoxes, there is a “science of composition”, elevating ideas and emotions, by a combination of invention and the skills of representation.
Very few artists allowed us to enter the back stage of their creative mind. One of them was the great American poet Edgar Allan Poe who, in 1846, in his “Philosophy of Composition” explained the genesis of his famous poem The Raven composed one year earlier.

Humanity is very lucky to have Rembrandt’s “Cornelis Anslo and his wife”, a the large oil painting on canvas done by Rembrandt in 1641, currently in the Gemäldegalerie of Berlin.
By examining the preparatory drawings and how they were changed during the creation process, we can in part read the footsteps of the creative process and lift a bit the curtain on Rembrandt’s creative genius.
Anslo and the Mennonites

On the painting, we see the Mennonite preacher Cornelis Anslo sitting at a table with some large books on his right and seemingly uttering words of consolation to a woman, most probably his wife.1
The composition is highly asymmetrical, quite unusual at that time. The low viewpoint from which the table with the books is seen, determines to a great extent the effect the painting makes. It is as if Anslo delivers a sermon from a pulpit.
The painting is quite large: 1m73 high and 207 cm large. The man with the black hat is Cornelis Claesz Anslo (1592-1646), a rich shipowner and cloth merchant. He was born in Amsterdam as the fourth son of the Norwegian-born Dutch cloth merchant Claes Claesz. « Anslo » (meaning “from Oslo”). Some pretend he has a fur coat because the painting was executed in winter, but the fur here is nothing but a sign of wealth, success and status. Anslo’s brothers were big names of the drapers guild that ran Amsterdam’s cloth industry. They made big money by selling the sort of carpets here on the table.
But Cornelis was also a deeply religious person for which religion means action rather than words alone. After getting married he created an almshouse for destitute old women. Well educated, he became then a preacher at the Grote Spijker, the church of the Waterlanders, the Mennonites of Amsterdam.

The Mennonites were a Dutch religious grouping originally founded by Simon Menno (1496-1561), a priest who left the Catholic faith and added his own branch to the protestant reformation. Some of the Amish people in the US are descendants of the Dutch and Flemish Mennonites.
It would be too long here to go into their history. In short they saw themselves as a gathering of Christians willing to live in the image of God. They didn’t want an official church. They just got together, read the Bible and tried to transform its message in concrete deeds. For example, the Mennonites took the scripture seriously when it said that Jesus told us to“Love our enemies and pray for those who persecute us”. As a result, the Mennonites decided they never would participate in war or go to war. So they were not exactly appreciated by the other religious faiths of that time, most of them engaged in battles. While many of his acquaintances were, Rembrandt never was a formal member of the Mennonites but he clearly identified with some aspects of their peace-loving worldview.2

Getting to work
So in 1640-41, Anslo turned to Rembrandt to have his portrait done. The preacher probably asked the painter to do a sketch to get an idea of how the final portrait would look like. In the first drawing with red chalk in the British Museum, one sees the preacher.
QUESTION: What is special about this drawing ?
AUDIENCE: ….
KAREL: he holds his pen in his left hand, because the drawing is done to prepare for an etching. If you copy the image on a copper or zinc plate and then print it, you get a mirror image, which means that in the printed etching, Anslo appears as having a pen in his right hand, since the mirror image inverses the directionality. You have to plan that from the start.
Then we have the etching of 1641 in the Met.

QUESTION: What is special about the etching as compared to the drawing?
AUDIENCE: ….
KAREL: He added empty space. Why?
AUDIENCE: …
KAREL: In a good art school, you learn how to do “cropping” (re-framing) the image

KAREL: But, wait a minute, was the added space really empty?
AUDIENCE: …
KAREL: In fact, he added two things:
–one, a nail in the wall behind him (very aesthetic!);
–two: a painting put down on the floor with the image turned towards the wall (also very esthetic).
Vondel and Poetry
Strange? Not really. To come to an answer we need to go around it. What is hardly known, is that underneath the printed etching one finds a short poem of Joost van der Vondel, considered the greatest poet of the Dutch language:

It reads in Flemish:
« Op de Teekeninge van / Kornelis Nikolaesz Anslo /
Kunstich door Rembrandt gedaen /
Ay Rembrandt mael Kornelis stem /
het zichtbare deel is’t minst van hem /
‘t onzichtbare kent men slecht deur d’ooren /
wie Anslo zien wil, moet hem hooren. /
J. v. Vondel »
Translated to English:
« On the drawing of Kornelis Nikolaesz Anslo/
Artfully done by Rembrandt
“O, Rembrandt, paint Cornelis’s voice.
The visible part is the least of him;
the invisible we know only through our ears;
he who would like to see Anslo, must hear him”.
J. v. Vondel »
Now, till 1641, Vondel was the dean of the Waterlanders, the Mennonite grouping of Amsterdam of which Anslo was a leading preacher.
In fact the poem mentions a “tekening” (drawing), and the poem can be found already on the back of the initial sketch. It is fair to think that Anslo showed Rembrandt’s preparatory sketch to Vondel, the dean of the congregation. Reacting with his poem, Vondel accomplishes three things:
- He restates the “party line”, i.e. the core belief of the Mennonites, namely that the WORD (and even more the VOICE, that is the spoken word) was superior to the image to evangelize humanity. Transforming others with your voice had a higher value then just learning.3
- Vondel gently makes it clear that his own art, poetry, is superior to that of Rembrandt, painting…
- Vondel says Rembrandt might even do better.
It is clear that Rembrandt felt challenged by the poet remarks. The etching might be a first answer of the painter since it tries to state that point with the nail showing the image taken down and placed with its front side against the wall.
But to prepare the painting, Rembrandt, did a new sketch, now in the Louvre.

The image of the etching with the nail was certainly understood by the Mennonites of the Grote Spijker (meaning in Dutch both the « big storehouse », the nickname given to their temple, and the « big nail »…), but insufficient to reach out to a larger public like over time.
Painting the invisible
Something else had to be invented visually to present on a higher level the same argument and overcome the challenge of “painting the invisible”.

Already in the Louvre drawing, Anslo’s hand is moving to the left, or rather his head is moving to the right, leaning towards the person to which he is speaking. But in the drawing if he is not yet speaking, but “at the point” of speaking, that is a position of mid-motion-change as discussed by Lyndon LaRouche. The speaking will be absolutely manifest in the final painting. Anslo’s mouth is open and his eyebrows are raised.

Going beyond the portrait of Anslo per se, Rembrandt invents something totally new: he adds a person listening with great attention. So, in order to paint the “voice” (sound), he paints another invisible phenomenon, this one being the opposite of sound, namely silence. A voice resonating without somebody listening is as dead as the word in a book.
With this, Rembrandt overcomes the Vondel paradox and states the superiority of his own art, painting, and the fact that through, and by the image, the apparent opposites of sound and silence, can be overcome and make visible the word of God, acting through the voice of Anslo and the listening of his wife.
Now, the heavenly light of God arrives in the room, and extinguishes the earthly light of the candles to make place for the heavenly.
To conclude, if you want to continue this type of discussion, I invite all of you all join the international working group on art among practicing artists, initiated by Dr Ned Rosinsky. So far, it mainly includes Debbie Sonnenblick, Ilko Dimov, Dean Clark, eventually Sébastien Drochon, Agnès Farkas and Remi Lebrun, Philip Ulanowsky, Christine Bierre and myself. You see some works here (shows folder). Please get in touch with me for that.
Thanks,

SUMMARY BIOGRAPHY:
- Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings, database
https://rembrandtdatabase.org/literature/corpus.html - Filippi, Elena, Weisheit zwischen Bild und Word in Fall Rembrandt, Coincidentia, Band 2/1, 2011;
- Haak, Bob, Rembrandt, Rembrandt: his life, work and times, Thames & Hudson, 1969;
- Kauffman, Ivan J. , Seeing the Light, Essays on Rembrandt’s religious images, Academia.edu, 2015;
- Schama, Simon, Rembrandt’s Eyes, Alfred A. Knopf, 1999;
- Schwartz, Gary, Rembrandt, Flammarion, Mercatorfonds, 2006;
- Tümpel, Christian, Rembrandt, Albin Michel, Mercatorfonds, 1986;
- Vereycken, Karel, Rembrandt the nationbuilder, Nouvelle Solidarité, 1985;
- Vereycken, Karel, Rembrandt and the Light of Agapè, Artkarel.com, 2001;
- Wright, Christopher, Rembrandt, Citadelles & Mazenot, 2000.
- Experts have often disagreed about the identity of the woman. Is it his mother, his wife, or a servant of the almshouse founded by Anslo. In 1767, Camelis van der Vliet, the governor of the almshouse, reported about a passage of the archives showing that Anslo preached the gospel not only in public but also “to’zijn vrouw en kinderen; gelijk hij ook dus wonderbaarlijk fraai verbeeld word in voorgemelde schilderij, sprekende tegen zijn vrouw over den bijbel, welke op een tafel bij zig open legt, en waama zijn vrouw, op eene onnavolgelijke wijze konstig verbeeld word aandagtig en ingespannen te horen’” (He preached “to his wife and children; just as he is most wonderfully portrayed in the aforementioned painting, speaking to his wife about the bible which lies open before him, to which his wife, depicted in an inimitably artful fashion, listens with devout attention”). Furthermore this woman is not dressed like a destitute inhabitant of an almshouse, but wholly inline with her position as the wife of a wealthy merchant. The painting, done for Anslo’s private house, only became property of the almshouse many years after his lifetime. ↩︎
- In 1686, the Italian art critic Filippo Baldinucci stated that “The artist professed in those days the religion of the Menists (Mennonites).” Recent research proves that Rembrandt had close ties with Amsterdam’s Waterlander Mennonite Community, particularly through Hendrick Uylenburgh, a Mennonite art dealer who ran an artists’ studio in which Rembrandt worked from 1631 to 1635. Rembrandt became chief painter of the studio and in 1634 married Van Uylenburgh’s first cousin Saskia van Uylenburgh, who wasn’t a Mennonite. ↩︎
- The conflict between VOICE, WORD and IMAGE, had sparked in 1625 had a violent dispute among the Amsterdam Waterlanders with a one faction saying that the written word “was dead” and that what was important, was the living word, that is Jesus, who was alive as the “inner word” of Christians. Anslo intervened by publishing an anonymous pamphlet aimed to prevent a schism. ↩︎
Rembrandt, la science de « peindre l’invisible »

article in EN online on this website
article in RU at the bottom of this page
Intervention de Karel Vereycken, peintre-graveur, historien, vice-président de Solidarité & Progrès, lors de la conférence organisée par S&P et l’Institut Schiller à Paris, les 8 et 9 novembre 2025.
Je souhaite que cette présentation prenne la forme d’un atelier. C’est pourquoi je demande à ceux qui « savent déjà » ne pas répondre immédiatement à mes questions, mais de laisser la parole à ceux qui ne sont pas encore familiarisés avec ce domaine afin qu’ils puissent s’exprimer et formuler leurs hypothèses.
Dans l’art contemporain commercial, la seule science dont il est question consiste à renoncer à toute forme de rationalité et à laisser libre cours à une émotion quelconque qui s’empare de l’artiste, souvent plus dégradante qu’élévatrice. Cependant, dans les œuvres fondées sur des paradoxes métaphoriques, il existe une véritable « science de la composition », qui élève les idées et les émotions en mobilisant une combinaison de l’invention et de la maîtrise de la représentation.
Peu d’artistes nous ont permis de pénétrer dans les coulisses de leur processus créatif. L’un d’eux fut le grand poète américain Edgar Allan Poe qui, en 1846, dans sa Philosophie de la composition, expliqua la genèse de son célèbre poème Le Corbeau, composé un an auparavant.

L’humanité a la chance de pouvoir admirer « Cornelis Anslo et sa femme » de Rembrandt, une grande peinture à l’huile sur toile réalisée en 1641 et conservée à la Gemäldegalerie de Berlin. L’étude des dessins préparatoires et de leurs modifications au cours du processus de création nous permet de lever en partie le voile sur les étapes de ce processus et d’entrevoir le génie créatif de Rembrandt.
Anslo et les mennonites

Sur le tableau, on voit le prédicateur mennonite Cornelis Anslo assis à une table couverte de gros livres, s’adressant à une femme, très probablement son épouse.1
La composition est très asymétrique, ce qui était assez inhabituel pour l’époque. Le point de vue en contre-plongée, d’où l’on observe la table avec les livres, détermine en grande partie l’effet produit par le tableau. L’impression prévaut qu’Anslo, inspiré des saintes écritures, prononce un sermon du haut d’une chaire.
Le tableau est assez grand : 1,73 m de haut sur 2,07 m de large. L’homme au chapeau noir est Cornelis Claesz Anslo (1592-1646), un riche armateur et marchand de tissus. Il est né à Amsterdam, quatrième fils du marchand de tissus néerlandais d’origine norvégienne Claes Claeszoon Anslo. Anslo signifie « d’Oslo ». Certains prétendent qu’il porte un manteau de fourrure car le tableau a été réalisé en hiver, mais la fourrure ici n’est autre qu’un signe de richesse, de réussite et de statut social. Les frères d’Anslo étaient des figures majeures de la guilde des drapiers qui contrôlait l’industrie textile d’Amsterdam. Ils ont fait fortune en vendant des tapis comme celui-ci, posé sur la table.
Mais Cornelis était aussi un homme profondément religieux, pour qui la religion se traduisait par des actes et non par de simples paroles. Après son mariage, il fonda un hospice pour femmes âgées démunies. Instruit, il devint ensuite prédicateur à la Grote Spijker, l’église des Waterlanders, les mennonites d’Amsterdam.
Les mennonites étaient un groupe religieux néerlandais fondé à l’origine par Simon Menno (1496-1561), un prêtre qui quitta l’Église catholique pour créer sa propre branche au sein de la Réforme protestante. Certains Amish, aux États-Unis, descendent des mennonites néerlandais et flamands.
Il serait trop fastidieux de retracer leur histoire ici. En bref, ils se considéraient comme une communauté de chrétiens désireux de vivre à l’image de Dieu. Ils ne souhaitaient pas d’Église officielle. Ils se réunissaient simplement, lisaient la Bible et s’efforçaient de traduire son message en actes concrets. Par exemple, ils prenaient très au sérieux le passage des Écritures où Jésus nous invite à « aimer nos ennemis et à prier pour ceux qui nous persécutent ». De ce fait, les mennonites décidèrent de ne jamais faire la guerre à quiconque ni d’y prendre part. Ils n’étaient donc pas vraiment appréciés des autres confessions religieuses de l’époque, souvent engagées dans divers conflits armés. Contrairement à bon nombre de ses connaissances, Rembrandt n’a jamais été officiellement membre des mennonites. Il partageait néanmoins certains aspects de leur vision pacifique du monde.2

(Crédit: domaine public, British Museum.)
En 1640-1641, Anslo fit appel à Rembrandt pour son portrait. Le prédicateur demanda probablement au peintre de réaliser une esquisse afin de se faire une idée du résultat final. Le prédicateur apparaît sur le premier dessin à la sanguine conservé au British Museum.
QUESTION : Qu’y a-t-il de particulier dans ce dessin ?
PUBLIC : ….
KAREL : Alors qu’il était droitier, il tient sa plume de la main gauche, car le dessin est préparatoire à une gravure. Si l’on transfère l’image telle quelle sur une plaque de cuivre ou de zinc, puis qu’on l’imprime, on obtient une image en miroir. Ainsi, dans la gravure imprimée, Anslo apparaîtra avec une plume dans la main droite, puisque l’effet miroir inverse le sens de l’image. Il faut le prévoir dès le départ.
Nous avons ensuite la gravure de 1641, au Metropolitan Museum de New York.

QUESTION : Qu’est-ce qui différencie l’eau-forte du dessin ?
PUBLIC : ….
KAREL : Il a ajouté de l’espace vide. Pourquoi ?
PUBLIC : …
KAREL : Dans une bonne école d’art, on apprend à recadrer l’image.

à gauche, format intégral ; à droite, recadrée Metropolitan Museum, New York.

KAREL : Mais attendez une minute, cet espace supplémentaire est-il vraiment vide ?
PUBLIC : …
KAREL : En fait, il a ajouté deux choses :
- un clou dans le mur derrière lui (très esthétique !)
- un tableau posé au sol, l’image tournée vers le mur (également très esthétique).
Étrange ? Pas tant que ça, puisque la congrégation s’appelait De grote spijker (« Le grand clou », clou signifiant également le « grand magasin » ou la « grange » leur servant de temple).
Vondel et la poésie
Pas vraiment. Pour trouver une réponse, il faut faire un petit détour. Ce que l’on sait peu, c’est qu’en dessous des tirages de la gravure apparaît souvent, ajouté à la main, un court poème de Joost van der Vondel, considéré comme le plus grand poète de langue néerlandaise :

On peut y lire en néerlandais/flamand :
“Op de Teekeninge van / Kornelis Nikolaesz Anslo /
Kunstich door Rembrandt gedaen /
Ay Rembrandt mael Kornelis stem /
het zichtbare deel is’t minst van hem /
’t onzichtbare kent men slecht deur d’ooren /
wie Anslo zien wil, moet hem hooren. /
J. v. Vondel »
Traduction française :
« Ô Rembrandt, peins la voix de Cornelis.
La partie visible est la moindre de lui ;
l’invisible, nous ne le connaissons que par nos oreilles ;
celui qui veut voir Anslo doit l’entendre. »
J. v. Vondel
ou, la version rimée que m’a offerte mon amie russe:
« Rembrandt, ô peins, vibrant, la voix de Cornelis.
La part visible de lui n’est qu’une esquisse
Son invisible, c’est l’ouï qui nous le révèle;
Seul qui l’entend puisse voir Anslo tel quel.«
Jusqu’en 1641, Vondel fut le doyen des Waterlanders, le groupe mennonite d’Amsterdam dont Anslo était un prédicateur de premier plan.
Son poème mentionne un « tekening » (dessin) et, en effet, on peut déjà trouver le poème au verso de l’esquisse initiale. On peut penser qu’Anslo a montré, pour avis, l’esquisse préparatoire de Rembrandt à Vondel, le doyen de sa congrégation.
En réagissant par son poème, Vondel met en lumière trois points :
- Il affirme haut et fort la position officielle de la congrégation des mennonites, à savoir que la parole (et plus encore la voix, c’est-à-dire la parole prononcée) est supérieure à l’image pour évangéliser l’humanité. Transformer les autres par sa voix a plus de valeur que le simple apprentissage, et enfin, que pour connaître il faut enseigner.3
- Vondel fait subtilement comprendre que son propre art, la poésie, est supérieur à celui de Rembrandt, la peinture…
- Il dit que Rembrandt pourrait même faire mieux.
Il est clair que Rembrandt s’est senti interpellé par les remarques plutôt amicales du poète. La gravure pourrait constituer une première réponse du peintre, puisqu’elle souligne l’importance de la parole par cette idée du clou, symbolisant l’image décrochée et placée face contre le mur.
Mais pour préparer le grand tableau à l’huile, Rembrandt réalisa une nouvelle esquisse, aujourd’hui conservée au Louvre.

L’iconographie de la gravure était certainement comprise des mennonites, mais cela ne suffisait pas à toucher un public plus large au fil du temps. Il fallait donc inventer autre chose, visuellement parlant, pour présenter à un niveau supérieur le même argument et surmonter le défi de « peindre l’invisible ».

Déjà dans le dessin du Louvre, la main d’Anslo se déplace vers la gauche, ou plutôt sa tête vers la droite, donnant l’impression que le prédicateur se penche vers son interlocuteur. Dans ce deuxième dessin, si Anslo ne parle pas encore, bien qu’il soit « sur le point » de parler, il se trouve dans une position instable, disons de transition, entre deux mouvements, c’est-à-dire en « point de changement de mouvement » (mid-motion-change, comme l’a formulé Lyndon LaRouche).
La parole sera pleinement manifeste dans le tableau final : la bouche d’Anslo est ouverte et ses sourcils sont levés.

Mais au-delà du simple portrait d’Anslo, Rembrandt ajoute un élément totalement inédit : une personne qui écoute avec une attention extrême.
Ainsi, pour peindre la « voix » (le son), il peint un autre phénomène invisible, son contraire : le silence. Une voix qui résonne sans auditeur est aussi morte qu’un mot dans un livre.
Par là, Rembrandt surmonte le paradoxe de Vondel et affirme la supériorité de son art, la peinture, et le fait que, par l’image, les apparents opposés du son et du silence peuvent être dépassés et rendre visible la parole de Dieu, agissant à travers la voix d’Anslo et surtout l’écoute de sa femme.
Alors, la lumière céleste de Dieu pénètre dans la pièce et éteint la lumière terrestre des bougies pour faire place à la lumière céleste.

Pour conclure, si vous souhaitez poursuivre ce type de discussion, je vous invite à rejoindre le groupe de travail international sur l’art, parmi les artistes amateurs de notre mouvement. Ce groupe fut lancé par le Dr Ned Rosinsky. À ce jour, il comprend principalement son initiateur, Debbie Sonnenblick, Ilko Dimov, peut-être Sébastien Drochon, Philip Ulanowsky, Christine Bierre et moi-même. Vous pouvez voir quelques-unes de leurs œuvres ici. N’hésitez pas à me contacter à ce sujet.
Merci
BIOGRAPHIE SOMMAIRE :
- Corpus des peintures de Rembrandt, base de données
https://rembrandtdatabase.org/literature/corpus.html - Filippi, Elena, Weisheit zwischen Bild und Word in Fall Rembrandt, Coincidentia, groupe 2/1, 2011
- Haak, Bob, Rembrandt : sa vie, son œuvre et son époque, Thames & Hudson, 1969
- Kauffman, Ivan J., Voir la lumière, Essais sur les images religieuses de Rembrandt, Academia.edu, 2015
- Schama, Simon, Les yeux de Rembrandt, Alfred A. Knopf, 1999
- Schwartz, Gary, Rembrandt, Flammarion, Mercatorfonds, 2006
- Tümpel, Christian, Rembrandt, Albin Michel, Mercatorfonds, 1986
- Vereycken, Karel, Rembrandt, bâtisseur de nation, Nouvelle Solidarité, 1985
- Vereycken, Karel, Rembrandt et la lumière d’Agapè, Artkarel.com, 2001
- Wright, Christopher, Rembrandt, Citadelles et Mazenot, 2000.
- Les experts ont souvent divergé quant à l’identité de la femme. S’agit-il de sa mère, de son épouse ou d’une servante de l’hospice fondé par Anslo ? En 1767, Camelis van der Vliet, la gouvernante de l’hospice, rapporta un passage des archives indiquant qu’Anslo prêchait l’Évangile non seulement en public mais aussi « à sa femme et à ses enfants ; tout comme il est merveilleusement représenté dans le tableau susmentionné, parlant à sa femme de la Bible qui est ouverte devant lui, et que sa femme, représentée d’une manière inimitable et artistique, écoute avec une attention dévote ». A cela s’ajoute que la femme n’est pas vêtue comme une indigente pensionnaire d’un hospice, mais conformément à son statut d’épouse d’un riche marchand. Ce n’est que bien plus tard que le tableau, réalisé pour la demeure privée d’Anslo, deviendra propriété de l’hospice. ↩︎
- En 1686, le critique d’art italien Filippo Baldinucci déclara que « l’artiste professait à cette époque la religion des ménistes (mennonites) ». Des recherches récentes confirment que Rembrandt avait des liens étroits avec la communauté mennonite Waterlander d’Amsterdam, notamment par l’intermédiaire d’Hendrick Uylenburgh, un marchand d’art mennonite qui dirigeait un atelier d’artistes où Rembrandt travailla de 1631 à 1635. Rembrandt devint le peintre en chef de l’atelier et épousa en 1634 la cousine germaine de Van Uylenburgh, Saskia van Uylenburgh, qui n’était pas mennonite. ↩︎
- Le débat sur le rôle exact de la voix, de la parole et de l’image pour les prêcheurs, dégénéra en 1625 en une violente dispute entre les membres de la communauté des Waterlanders d’Amsterdam et d’ailleurs. Une faction affirmait que la parole écrite n’était qu’une voix « morte » et que seul importait la parole vivante, c’est-à-dire Jésus, qui était vivant en chacun en tant que « parole intérieure » des chrétiens. En publiant un pamphlet anonyme, Anslo a pu calmer le débat et réconcilier les croyants, évitant ainsi un schisme. ↩︎
Zheng He and the Chinese Maritime Expeditions
Cet article en FR

By launching its « 21st Century Maritime Silk Road », China is reconnecting with a particularly rich naval and maritime past. Its first activities in this field date back, as far as navigation in the China Sea is concerned, to the Zhou dynasty (771-256 BC).
(See also my article The Maritime Silkroad, a history of 1001 Cooperations )
By Karel Vereycken
By the Han period (1st to 3rd century CE), China was already familiar with naval techniques, including a primitive form of compass and the famous junks capable of reaching the coasts of Africa.

An activity, undoubtedly carried out by Chinese, Indian and Arab navigators, which developed, notably from the great Indian port of Calicut, over a thousand-year period, in particular under the Tang (618-907) and the Song (960-1279).
« The annual import into China of ivory, rhinoceros horn, pearls, incense and other products found specifically along the coasts of Yemen and East Africa, amounted (around 1053) to 53,000 units of account, » according to the chroniclers of the dynasty of the time.

In exchange for imperial silk, ceramics and porcelain, Chinese sailors also bought large quantities of pearls and precious objects. Many Song and Tang Chinese coins have been found, as well as porcelain, in the coastal regions of Somalia, Kenya and Tanganyika as well as the island of Zanzibar.
The XVth Century

However, the expeditions of Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433) under the Ming dynasty, at the beginning of the XVth century, are something exceptional because they were strongly oriented towards scientific exchanges.
Zheng was born a Muslim. Grandson of the governor of Yunnan Province, he became a eunuch at the court of Zhu Di, the future Yongle Emperor (1402-1424).
The latter made history by launching a series of (very) major works:
- It reinvigorates the Silk Roads;
- He restored the astronomical observatory to its former functions;
- He moved the Chinese capital from Nanking to Beijing;
- In the heart of the capital, he had the Forbidden City built by 1 million workers and craftsmen;
- It modernizes the Grand Canal to guarantee the food security of the capital;
- He expanded the system of imperial examinations for the selection of scholars;
- He had 2,180 scholars write the largest encyclopedia ever written, comprising more than 11,000 volumes;
- He appointed Admiral Zheng He as commander-in-chief of a high seas fleet tasked with publicizing and recognizing the achievements of China and its Emperor throughout the world.

Thus, between 1405 and 1433, Admiral Zheng will lead seven expeditions which will land in almost all the countries, ports and sites that count in the Indian Ocean:
- Vietnam: the kingdom of Champa, city of Cochinchina;
- Indonesia: the island of Java and Sumatra, Aru Islands, city of Palembang;
- Thailand: Siam;
- Malaysia: port of Malacca, islands of Pahang and state of Kelantan (Malaysia);
- Sri Lanka: the island of Ceylon;
- India: Kozhikode (or Calicut), capital of the state of Kerala in India;
- The Maldives Islands;
- Iran: Hormuz Island in the Persian Gulf
- Yemen: Aden;
- Somalia: Mogadishu;
- Kenya: Kingdom of Malindi (Melinde);
- Sultanate of Oman: Muscat and Dhofar;
- Saudi Arabia: Jeddah and Mecca.

The Science of Navigation

His fleet, during the first expedition between 1405 and 1407, had no fewer than 27,800 men on board 317 vessels, including 62 « treasure ships », XXL ships capable of carrying 500 people.
The largest junk is 122 metres long and 52 metres wide, it has nine masts and 3000 tonnes, while Christopher Columbus’ caravels of 1492 are only 25 metres long and 5 metres wide, its sails hoisted on only two masts and carrying only 450 tonnes!
Imitating the partitioned stems of bamboo, these ships are composed of watertight compartments which make them less vulnerable to shipwrecks and fires. The ancestral technique of watertight compartments, taken up by Western shipbuilding in the 19th century, was registered in November 2010 by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage of humanity.
Historians note that in Europe, shipbuilding drew its inspiration from the swimming of fish. Throughout history, our ships have sought to cut through the waves and the bow remains one of the fundamental points of our shipbuilding.

However, the Chinese note that the fish that swims underwater cannot be an example for evolving on the water. Their reference animal is the duck. No bow when it is enough to fly over the surface. The junk was therefore designed according to the shape of this sea bird. From this one, it takes its elongation, its very low draft on the front of the hull and its great width.
According to some historians, on February 2, 1421, the Yongle Emperor gathered 28 leaders and dignitaries from Asia, Arabia, the Indian Ocean and Africa.
This summit, according to Serge Michel and Michel Beuret, was
« the most international conference ever organized and which would have testified to the influence of Ming China (1368-1644), an empire then open to the world. »1
In France, in 1431, Joan of Arc was burned at the stake in Rouen…
A civilizational chasm

At the end of the 14th century, a gulf separated the level of development of China from that of a Europe ruined by the Hundred Years’ War, an unprecedented financial crash, famine and the Black Death.
For example, the library of the English king Henry V (1387-1422) consisted of only six manuscript volumes, three of which were loaned by a convent. The Vatican, for its part, possessed only about a hundred books before 1417.
While for the inauguration of the Forbidden City in Beijing in 1421, some 26,000 guests feasted on a banquet consisting of ten courses served on plates of the finest porcelain, in Europe, a few weeks later, at the wedding of Henry V to Catherine of Valois, it was salted cod on slices of stale bread that was served to the six hundred guests!
While the Chinese army could field a million men armed with firearms, the same Henry V of England, when he went to war against France the same year, had barely 5,000 fighters armed with bows, swords and pikes. And the English monarch, lacking a powerful navy, was forced to use fishing boats to cross the Channel…
Diplomacy and Prestige

Contrary to what has been said, the Ming dynasty was not concerned with seeking new trade routes, systematically supplying itself with slaves or finding land to colonize.
The sea routes used by Zheng’s fleet were already known and had been frequented by Arab merchants since the 7th century.
That this was a demonstration of Chinese prestige is demonstrated by the fact that in 1407 Zheng founded a language school in Nanking.
Sixteen translators would travel with the Chinese fleets, allowing the admiral to converse, from India to Africa, in Arabic, Persian, or even in Swahili, Hindi, Tamil and other languages.
Since religious freedom was one of the Emperor’s great virtues, Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist scholars were included in the journey.
Equally remarkable was the presence of scientists on ships so large that they allowed scientific experiments to be conducted there.
The metallurgists who had embarked for the occasion prospected in the countries where the fleet stopped. The doctors could collect plants, remedies and treatments for diseases and epidemics.
Botanists tried to acclimatize useful plants or food crops. The ships also brought seeds that the Chinese hoped to cultivate abroad.

It was during these expeditions that China established diplomatic relations with around thirty countries. The story of these exchanges has come down to us thanks to the remarkable work of his traveling companion Ma Huan.
Also a Muslim, his writings are available in a book entitled Ying-yai Sheng-lan ( The Wonders of the Oceans ).
During their last voyage, the two friends were granted the right to go as far as Mecca with a view to establishing commercial exchanges.
On his fourth expedition, National Geographic claims, Zheng met with representatives of the Sultanate of Malindi (present-day Kenya), with whom China had established diplomatic relations in 1414.
As tribute, African dignitaries offered Zheng He zebras and a giraffe, an animal the Romans called the cameleopard (half-camel, half-leopard).
In China, the Emperor hoped to one day possess a qilin , that is to say an animal as mythical as the unicorn in the West, a cross between a deer or a horse with hooves, and a lion or a dragon with a brightly colored skin.
The emperor also wanted a painting of the giraffe, a copy of which was found in 1515 in a painting by the Flemish painter Hieronymus Bosch, who had copied it from a book by Cyriacus of Ancome (1391-1452), a great Italian traveller.

Right: détail of Hieronymus Bosch’s Garden of Earthly Delights, left panel, Madrid.
Unfortunately, in May 1421, two months after the departure of the great fleet, the Forbidden City, struck by lightning, was reduced to ashes.
Interpreted as a sign from heaven, this will be the beginning of a period of national withdrawal which will lead China to abandon its projects, to even destroy, in 1479, all the documents relating to these expeditions and to interrupt its foreign trade until 1567.
Faced with the Mongol threat, China will then concentrate on the construction of the Great Wall, agriculture and education.
Today
It was not until 1963 that Zhou Enlai, during his tour of Africa, rehabilitated Admiral Zheng. In 2005, China celebrated the 600th anniversary of his first expedition and evoked his memory at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games.
For China, Zheng’s expeditions are emblematic of its ability to promote harmonious commercial development that broke with the Western and Japanese colonial practices from which China suffered during the « 150 years of humiliation. »
President Xi rightly said in 2014:
« Countries that have tried to pursue their development goals through the use of force have failed (…) This is what history has taught us. China is committed to maintaining peace. »
NOTE:
- In his book 1421, the Year China Discovered America , the amateur historian Gavin Menzies, a former commander of the British Royal Navy, claims, on the basis of copies of old maps whose authenticity is more than questionable, that Zheng We’s men were able to reach America, even Australia, and this well before the Europeans. His publisher, who had his text completely rewritten by 130 communicators to make it a bestseller, granted him 500,000 English pounds to acquire the copyright worldwide. The Chinese, knowing full well that you have to be wary of the English especially when they flatter you, without closing the doors to further research, have so far resisted any idea of crediting his thesis. ↩︎
Les racines symbolistes des « Killer Games »

Le nombre croissant de massacres commis par des adolescents et jeunes adultes « happés » par les univers persistant véhiculés par des jeux vidéo dont la violence et la perversion ne cessent de croître nous porte à regarder de plus prêt les origines de cette cyberculture et les killer games.
Par Karel Vereycken, décembre 2007.
Le nombre croissant de massacres commis par des adolescents et jeunes adultes « happés » par les univers persistant véhiculés par des jeux vidéo et les killer games dont la violence et la perversion ne cessent de croître nous porte à regarder de plus prêt les origines de cette cyberculture.
La plus grande tromperie des Killer Games c’est précisément qu’ils font croire aux joueurs et aux parents des joueurs, qu’il ne s’agit que d’un simple jeu. Une fois établi ce « fait », notre cerveau tend à renoncer à toute enquête sérieuse sur le sens explicite ou non, et encore moins des « valeurs », véhiculées par le jeu. Beaucoup d’adeptes des jeux, y compris les plus violents, nous ont confiés qu’en réalité, il ne s’intéressaient qu’à « l’environnement graphique » de leur jouet.
Si nous sommes loin d’avoir tous les éléments en main, voici quelques pistes intéressantes pour mieux comprendre la genèse des images qui finissent par créer une telle fascination dans les esprits qu’on estime que le nombre cyberdrogués a dépassé les 10 000 en France.
Les racines symbolistes
Derrière la pseudo dérision de cette « culture de la mort », tout enquêteur honnête, ayant une connaissance rudimentaire de l’histoire de l’art, reconnaît sans grande peine un remake du courant culturel qui ruina la fin du XIXe siècle : ce symbolisme dont la démarche se résumait souvent au culte de la mort et du plaisir, incarné par l’image de la femme fatale, l’évasion dans l’érotisme ou l’exaltation de l’ailleurs onirique et oriental.
Ce motif symboliste du couple eros (sexe) et thanatos (mort) provient directement des doctrines ésotériques et anti-chrétiennes n’excluant pas les sacrifices humains. Si Mme Blavatsky et ses théosophes prônaient la mise à mort du judéo-christianisme en faveur des vertus « femelles » de religions anti-prométhéennes, la montée du fascisme nécessitait la valorisation de symboles hautement plus virils et plus guerriers.
Aujourd’hui, l’on reconnaît volontiers l’influence de la Théosophie sur un des pères fondateurs de l’abstrait lyrique, le peintre russe Wassily Kandinsky ou le cubiste hollandais Piet Mondrian.
Si l’on admet aussi sans problème l’influence des Rose-croix sur le cercle post-impressionniste des « Nabis » (Paul Sérusier, Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis et même Aristide Maillol) et autres précurseurs de l’art moderne, l’influence du symbolisme sur l’art réaliste fantastique digital reste largement ignoré.
De la science-fiction au Killer games en passant par les films d’horreurs
Avant l’apparition du business des jeux électroniques, tout cette imagination saugrenue se donnait rendez-vous dans la littérature de science-fiction et les films d’horreur avec des résultats parfois tout aussi dévastateur.


Rappelons que le 3 juin 2002, en Loire Atlantique, un adolescent de 17 ans portant le masque du tueur anonyme du film d’horreur de Wes Craven Scream de 1996 a massacré une jeune fille de 15 ans.
Le masque du film reprend en détail la tête peinte par le peintre symboliste norvégien Edvard Munch dans son œuvre Le cri de 1893. Un texte du journal de Munch à l’époque décrit la genèse de l’œuvre :
« Je suivait un chemin accompagné de deux amis ; le soleil se couchait ; je sentais une brise de mélancolie ; soudainement le ciel devenait rouge sang ; je me suis arrêté pour me reposer contre la clôture ; mortellement fatigué ; fixant les nuages enflammés qui étaient suspendu comme du sang et une épée au-dessus du fjord bleu et la ville ; mes amis continuaient leur chemin ; j’étais là, tremblant d’angoisse ; et je ressentais un grand cri, infini, traverser la nature. »
Au-delà de l’anecdote, constatons que Munch n’était pas une victime innocente. Affirmant que « l’ironie est la politesse du désespoir », il nous montre dans sa lithographie Madone de 1902, la puissance séductrice de la femme fatale entourée d’une frise où courent en vain de frétillants spermatozoïdes tandis que dans le coin gauche un avorton lève un regard suppliant vers sa déesse, variation du motif d’eros/thanatos.
Kill Bill


Ce motif fait toujours recette. Pour rester dans le domaine cinématographique, il est à noter que le rôle attribué à Uma Thurman dans le film de Quentin Tarantino Kill Bill sorti en 2003 est également construit sur un scénario permettant de faire passer ces valeurs du symbolisme fascisant.
Dans ce film, des assassins surgissent et tirent impitoyablement et sans raison sur toutes les personnes présentes lors de la répétition d’une cérémonie de mariage à El Paso au Texas. La mariée (Uma Thurman), qui est enceinte lors de la tuerie survit.
Ancienne tueuse à gages, elle se fixe comme seul but de se venger en tuant ses anciens complices y compris le père de son enfant. Résultat : un film « d’actions » (arts martiaux à gogo) où se mélange le sang des méchants à la beauté de l’actrice grâce à des mises à mort à coups de sabre.
La vengeance est une valeur moderne et la formule eut un tel résultat commercial que Kill Bill 2 et Kill Bill 3 furent rapidement commercialisés.

Si le symboliste français Gustave Moreau (précepteur de Matisse) habillait sa fascination pour la mort de mystères plus énigmatiques, comme dans son œuvre Jupiter et Sémélé, ce thème de la femme fatale fut largement développé par des artistes symbolistes, tel que le munichois Franz von Stück (Le péché, 1893 ; Le baiser du sphinx, 1895) ou le belge Ferdinand Khnopf (Le sphinx,1896).
Mais c’est sans doute le peintre polonais Jacek Malszewski, qui nous rapproche peut-être le plus du style en vogue dans l’art digital aujourd’hui.
Dans son Thanatos I de 1898, la mort ailée (une jeune femme) affûte sa faux. Le vieil homme qui demeure dans le manoir visible sur l’arrière plan accourt au bruit.
Enthousiasmé, il va vers une mort certaine.
Heavenly Sword
Regardons maintenant le scénario de Heavenly Sword, un jeu vidéo d’action, développé par Ninja Theory et édité par Sony pour sa PlayStation 3, lancé en septembre 2007 et affichant des profits fulgurants 941 % en un an.
Le joueur s’y identifie avec Nariko, une jolie femme à la longue crinière rouge qui part elle aussi en quête de vengeance contre un roi et son armée pour avoir malmené son clan.
Equipée d’une énorme épée divine, « une lame aussi puissante que divine », Nariko n’a que quelques heures pour accomplir sa tâche.
Car l’arme, forgé il y a des siècles, fut conçue pour un dieu. Mais, n’étant qu’humaine, l’énergie vitale de Nariko est aspirée par l’épée, l’affaiblissant à chaque coup porté.
Une fois de plus, la valeur centrale est la vengeance et le besoin de faire couler le sang à temps avant que s’impose le destin fatal de sa propre mort. La psychologie du terroriste kamikaze, celui de tuer un maximum avant de périr, est omniprésente.
La figure apparaît comme un mélange entre Lara Croft de Tomb Raider, Uma Thurman dans Kill Bill, arrosé de scènes ennuyeuses et banales de Kung Fu. La ressemblance entre les cheveux rouges de Nariki et les fleuves de sang rouge visent à esthétiser la violence.

L’artiste digital à l’origine de cette imagerie maladive est le jeune génois Alessandri Taini qui signe Talexi. Il semble, selon ses productions et sa page MySpace, un fervent admirateur de l’écrivain pervers italien et femme fatale Isabella Santacroce qui exhibe sa fesse droite sur sa page MySpace.
On ne connaît rien de cette personne, à part son association avec les Giovani Cannibali (jeunes cannibales), un mouvement littéraire des années 90 qui donna naissance en Italie à un mouvement philosophique et littéraire, le Nevroromanticismo, qui vise à exprimer le désarroi de l’existence.
Son œuvre se concentre sur l’amour dans tous ses états, y compris celui qui conduit inexorablement à la mort. Dans un livre, elle affirme que la famille n’est qu’un « carnaval horrible » qui ne mérite que la mort. Une série d’œuvres « personnelles » de Talexi, Dark Demonia et Frost Flower, inspiré par des écrits névroromantiques de Santacroce, ne montrent que désolation, bains de sang et avortons métastasés.
Le triangle d’or

La figure clef qui forme un pont reliant les symbolistes du début du siècle, l’art nazi, le modernisme et le réalisme fantastique qui domine l’environnement graphique des jeux vidéo d’aujourd’hui est le peintre mystique Ernst Fuchs.

Né en 1930, cette « artiste visionnaire » est aussi graphiste, graveur, architecte, concepteur de décors, poète et compositeur. Il fut un des fondateurs, avec d’autres élèves de Albert Paris Gütersloh, de l’école viennoise du réalisme fantastique inspiré par le symboliste Gustav Klimt et autres symbolistes.
Fuchs est le dernier survivant de ce qu’on a appelé « le triangle d’or », c’est-à-dire les trois artistes dont l’œuvre domine le siècle présent : Salvador Dali, Arno Breker et Ernst Fuchs. En réalité, ce triangle d’or n’est rien d’autre que l’extension du « cercle intime » d’Adolf Hitler.
Etudiant les techniques classiques des grands maîtres, Fuchs fut adopté après la guerre par le sculpteur personnel d’Adolf Hitler, Arno Breker.
Dans son Journal (1942/1945) qui couvre la période d’occupation, Jean Cocteau se laisse dire en juin 42 par Arno Breker, parlant de Hitler : « Vous n’aurez jamais en face de vous un homme aussi sensible ».
Arno Breker, ancien élève du symboliste proche des « Nabis », Maillol, est le sculpteur fétiche du régime nazi et le confident artistique de Hitler.
Bien que cubiste en 1922, Breker fut l’auteur des statues hyperréalistes représentant la race supérieure germanique pour le stade de Berlin lors des jeux olympiques en 1936. On lui doit des statues monumentales représentant à merveille la boursouflure et le goût de vespasienne des dignitaires nazis.
Breker, intime d’Hitler et de Albert Speer, était la coqueluche des élites parisiennes dans l’entre deux guerres et fut aussi, à part son amitié avec Jean Cocteau, l’ami de Salvador Dali et plus tard le protecteur d’Ernst Fuchs.
Fuchs déclarait lors des funérailles de Breker en 1991 que « Breker était un vrai prophète du beau dans l’art » et Breker affirmait que Fuchs s’était
« illustré dans les années 70 et 80 par des œuvres monumentales, aboutissement d’un inlassable travail créatif dédié à la sublimation passionnelle de la violence et de la mort. »
Aujourd’hui, Fuchs est la référence principale pour tous ceux engagés dans le réalisme fantastique qui domine « l’art digital ».

En Angleterre, la peintre Brigid Marlin a fondé en 1961 The Society for Art of Imagination, dont Fuchs et son adepte, le peintre suisse Hans Ruedi Giger, sont des membres honoraires.
H.R. Giger s’est fait connaître au grand public pour avoir obtenu l’oscar des meilleurs effets spéciaux sur le film culte de SF et d’horreur de Ridley Scott en 1980 Alien, le huitième passager.
Avec 80 millions de dollars de recette aux Etats-Unis (pour un budget de 11 millions seulement), 3 millions d’entrées en France, oscar des meilleurs effets spéciaux en 1980… Alien, le huitième passager connut un succès considérable.
Comme nous avons commencé à le documenter ici, en bâtissant sur l’héritage de Breker, Fuchs et Giger, l’industrie du jeu vidéo s’est érigée sur l’imaginaire malade qui a échoué à imposer le fascisme il y a trois générations et travaille durement pour sa victoire aujourd’hui, notamment à travers l’Ordre d’Alexandre le Grand.

The 1561 Landjuweel of Antwerp made Art a Weapon for Peace
Cet article, en FR

By Karel Vereycken, April 2025
Summary
- Introduction
- Early literacy (box)
- The Chambers of Rhetoric
- Rehabilitation
- Jousts, competitions and other festivals
- Landjuweel
- Political and economic context
- Ghent, 1539
- The influence of Erasmus
- De Violieren and the Guild of Saint Luke
- Antwerp, 1561
- Organization of the Landjuweel
- Philosophy
- A memorable day
- Peace and art, united for celebration
- Censorship, repression and revolt in the Burgundian Low Countries
Introduction
For foreigners it’s not always easy to accept that the countries of Northern Europe represented a peak of Renaissance culture in the XVIth century. However, those day’s Landjuweel (literally « jewel of the country ») poetry contests, mass-events with parades of allegorical floats, fireworks, drama, poetic recitations, farces, dances, refrains, songs and gastronomic feasts which thrilled the « Burgundian Low Countries » (a region including the present-day Netherlands, Belgium and northern France) should clearly become a source of inspiration for today.
Huge is my joy at discovering these treasures, but vast is my anger when I measure to what extent their true history was ignored and even hidden from all of us.
We focus here on the moral greatness of the zinne-spelen (allegorical drama’s) and intend to discuss the farces and the polyphonic musical contributions in some future writings.
Of course, as it is well known, it is the victors who write history. Not that of humanity, but their own. The history of the « losers » falls by the wayside. Therefore, in the Low Countries, be it Belgium or the Netherlands, the official churches, be they Catholic, Lutheran or Calvinist, and ruling elites, chosen by Spain and the British, have carefully erased from the books the truth about the revolutionary role and impact of Erasmus. 1
As we document here, Erasmus succeded, through his noble spirit and delicious wit, to mobilize quite a large following, not only in educated layers of the European elites, but in a broad part of the rising middle-class working people, a social layer which might resemble today’s « Yellow Vests ».

For modern people, of course, the religious processions, parades of giants, and masked carnivals of Venice, Rio de Janeiro, or Dunkirk in France appear as sympathetic as mere folkloric manifestations on UNESCO’s list of the intangible cultural heritage of France and Belgium. Appealing, no doubt, but without any connection to « true culture »!
Qualifying these events and traditions as « folkloric » results mostly from a lack of knowledge and understanding of real history. Regarding both the intent and the content of some of these festivals, such as the « Landjuweel » of Ghent in 1539 and the one in Antwerp in 1561, with five thousand participants and many more spectators, placing art, poetry and music as the true source of durable peace and harmony among nations, states and peoples, in terms of refinement and beauty, it can be said that they rival, and I would even say surpass many supposedly « cultural » events of today.

Precociously high literacy rates
There’s a persistent idea that needs to be fought, i.e. the belief that before the XIXth century, the century of Hippolyte Carnot and Jules Ferry, the literacy rate barely exceeded 15%, whether in Renaissance Italy, France, or the Nordic countries. Cultural festivals for scholars could therefore be nothing other than events organized by a small elite with substantial means looking to indulge themselves…
Regarding the literacy rate, researchers believe the figures need to be revised. The absence of statistics does not necessarily mean the absence of schools. In fact, from the time of Charlemagne onward, most villages, towns, and villages in Europe had « small schools. » And with urbanization and the increase in trade, the learning of languages and arithmetic came to complement the learning of reading and writing.2
Let us take the case of the city Douai (Today’s northern France, but formerly the Low Countries), which Alain Derville mentions in his article The Literacy of the People at the End of the Middle Ages, published in 1984 in Revue du Nord 3:
« Around 1204-1208 there were at least 7 schoolmasters in Douai in the jurisdiction of Saint-Pierre, therefore not counting that of Saint-Amé, and the school fees were unknown (…) A fee of 18 deniers is cited in 1316-1318; it had risen in 1450 to 4 sous (of Flanders). At that date 5 masters and one mistress refused to pay it, saying, among other things, that many schoolchildren were poor, so much so that, sometimes, they were educated for free: a precious admission. In short, according to B. Delmaire, the case of Douai should rather be compared to that of Valenciennes: for this town, P. Pierrard found at least 20 masters in 1337, 49 masters and mistresses in 1388, 18 masters and 10 mistresses running 24 schools in 1497. In 1386, 516 children were in school, including 145 girls, in 1497, 791, including 161 girls.
In a town which, after the misfortunes of 1477-1493, must have had 10,000 inhabitants rather than 15,000, the children aged 7 to 10 must have been 12 to 1300, that is to say that, if the school lasted three years, the boys would have been educated at 100%, the girls at 25%, at least around 1500. (…) The interest of the laity was therefore very keen for the education of children, at least primary but also, as in Saint-Omer, secondary and even higher (foundations in the XIVth century of colleges and scholarships), and this from the beginning of the XIIIth, as [the Belgian historian Henri] Pirenne had clearly seen. We certainly did not wait until the XVIIth century to ‘invest in education’ « . 4
It was the same in Brabant and Flanders. As proof, a small conversation book, the Boec van de ambachten (Book of Trades), published in Bruges in 1347, with the help of which one could, with pedagogical examples, learn Dutch or French. 5
In 2013, an international team of researchers of the Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) documented that the advanced degree of literacy and educated workforce at the end of the XVth and XVIth Century has to be attributed to the influence of the Brothers of the Common Life. 6
In 1567, the Florentine merchant Francesco Guicciardini, in his very comprehensive description of the region, noted that « Here, in the Burgundian Low Countries, learned people have lived and still live, highly educated in all sciences and arts. The common people generally possess rudiments of grammar, the country people at least know how to read and write. Their knowledge of languages is astonishing. For there are people here who have never set foot anywhere but their own country and who know, in addition to their mother tongue, foreign languages, especially French, which is in common use. Many of them also speak German, English, Italian and other foreign languages. » 7
Another source reports that in Antwerp, a major crossroads of world trade, language schools were plentiful. If you want to learn French, he told his interlocutor, go to Antwerp, you’ll find what you need to learn the language there. 8
Another indication of Antwerp’s high cultural level is the account of Andreas Franciscanus, most likely secretary of a diplomatic mission from Venice, who wrote in 1497 that in Antwerp, where the cathedral has a carillon of 49 bells, « everyone is keen on music, and is so expert that even bells are played harmoniously and with such a full sound that they seem to sing (…) all the desired tunes. » 9
Desiderius Erasmus himself stated that “Nowhere else does one find a greater number of people of average education.” 10
In Antwerp, for every 200 workers, there was one teacher, compared with the proportion found in Lyon, an equally rich, busy and important city, where it was one teacher for every 4,000 workers… 11
WOMEN
Also, “Spanish visitors … noted the widespread literacy in the Low Countries. One of Prince Philip’s entourage, Vicente Alvarez, noted in his journal that ‘almost everyone’ knew how to read and write, even women …” 12
Niccolo Nettoli, an Italian passing through, is surprised that women in Antwerp enjoy a certain freedom unhampered by child marriage like young Italian women. Young women, single and living under the parental roof, could go out with young men. The parents approved, sent the couple out to eat during the day, drink, and dance « without any supervision, » and welcomed them back in the evening, thanking the lover for the honor they had done their family. In Antwerp, « Hugging is allowed for everyone, everywhere, and at all times, » the Italian worries. 13
A finding shared by Guicciardini, an Italian merchant living in Antwerp but still astonished:
« As for the women of this country, besides being beautiful, clean, and very pleasant, they are also very kind, courteous, and gracious in their actions: since they begin from their childhood to converse (according to the custom of the Country) freely with everyone, by this company they become bolder in practicing company, and quick to speak, and in all things; but with this great freedom and license, they strictly keep the duty of their honesty, going not only to the city for the housekeeping, and affairs of their houses; so also to the fields, with little retinue, without thereby incurring blame, nor giving occasion for suspicion. They are sober, and very active and careful, interfering not only in domestic affairs (of which the men here do not hesitate and do not worry much) and do everything that in other countries is common for slaves and servants. Thus they also go and buy and sell merchandise and goods; and if they put their hands and tongues to the affairs proper to men (…) » 14
The Chambers of Rhetoric

At the origin of these poetry festivals and competitions of the Landjuweel type, literary and drama societies called Kamers van rhetorike (Chambers of Rhetoric) which emerged from the end of the XIVth century in the northwest of France and in the former Low Countries, above all in the County of Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant.
While in the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries these chambers became literary clubs for a bourgeoisie enjoying exercises in eloquence and rhyme, in these early days rhetorical culture was not socially an elite culture, as most rhetoricians were tradespeople and did not belong to the ruling elite of their city.
Recent research has confirmed that the rhetorical chambers of Flanders and Brabant primarily recruited their members from the urban middle classes, more specifically from the circles of artisans (masons, joiners, carpenters, dyers, printers, painters, etc.), merchants, clerks, practitioners of intellectual professions, and merchants. 15
In 1530, among the 42 members of the Brussels Chamber of De Corenbloem, there were 32 craftsmen (butchers, brewers, millers, carpenters, tile layers, comb makers, fishermen, coachbuilders, stonemasons, etc. = 76.2%). 16
In the artistic professions, there was a glazier and two painters (7.1%), in commerce, a fruit seller, an innkeeper, a skipper and a rag seller (9.5%). The remaining members were a civil servant, a harp-player and an announcer.

For the period 1400-1650, records were found of 227 Dutch-speaking chambers of rhetoric in the Southern Low Countries and the Principality of Liège, meaning that virtually every town had at least one. In 1561, the Duchy of Brabant had about 40 recognized chambers of rhetoric, while the County of Flanders had 125. 17
Their organization was similar to that of the corporations: at the head of each chamber was the dean, usually a clergyman (the chambers retained a religious aspect). Since their creation, the chambers were of two kinds: the free (vrye), enjoying a communal grant, and the subject (onvrye or vrywillige), having no grant, but reporting to a supreme chamber (hoofdkamer). Among the rhetoricians were the founders (ouders), and the members (broeders or gezellen); at the head of all were an emperor, a prince, often a hereditary prince (opperprins or erfprins); then came an honorary president (hoofdman), a grand dean, a dean, an auditor (fiscael), a standard-bearer (vaendraeger or Alpherus), and a boy (knaep), who sometimes dabbled in poetry.
The most important of all were the « factors » or « factors », that is to say the poets who were in charge of the « factie » (composition), poems, plays, farces and the organization of festivities. Initially in the bosom of the ecclesiastics, the Chambers took their independence and established themselves, in practical terms, as a « Festival Committee », charged by the municipal authorities with brightening up with poetry and splendor the joyous entries and cultural events throughout the year.



Rehabilitation
Further research, primarily in the Netherlands, has led scholars to « rehabilitate » the Chambers of Rhetoric, now considered of having been institutions that played a major role in the development of vernacular Dutch during the period 1450-1620. 18
Admittedly, mostly composed as dialogues among allegorical figures, a legacy of the Middle Ages and the troubadour tradition, artistically speaking, with some exceptions, most of these plays never reached the level or quality of dramatic intensity or refinement of Shakespeare or Schiller.
But as we shall see, the desire and intent to emancipate the people through a form of literary and musical art that uplifts by its moral content and liberates through ironical « cathartic » laughter was clearly central to their admirable objectives.
Jeroen Vandommele suggests that experts should rethink their views:
« Until the end of the XXth century, the poetry and theater that emerged from these circles were mostly perceived negatively. Rhetoricians were seen as amateurs, low-level word artists, novice craftsmen who met weekly to entertain themselves with rhymes while drinking a lot of alcohol. They were seen as representatives of a second-rate literary and intellectual culture. Sixteenth-century humanism and the literary renaissance would have been manifested mainly in (neo)Latin texts and, as far as the vernacular is concerned, in texts written from the second half of the sixteenth century onwards, mainly outside the rhetorician circles. It is only in the last three decades that these qualifications and visions have been distanced from the literature and culture of the rhetoricians and an attempt has been made to give them meaning in relation to the urban context in which they emerged. » 19
The respected Dutch historian Herman Pleij, who has contributed to a better understanding of the phenomenon and gave a major boost to this approach by demonstrating, from the 1970s onwards, the potential of XVth- and XVIth-century literature to generate what he calls « late medieval urban culture, » a true expression of an autonomous civic and urban culture. 20
According to him, their works were intended to unleash a « civilizing offensive » that would encourage the urban elite and middle classes to develop intellectually and morally and to distinguish (and dissociate) themselves from their less civilized urban counterparts.
Jousts, competitions and other festivals

The Chambers cultivated the art of poetry by competing against each other in competitions that were among the major events they organized for themselves or for the public. Each chamber itself set the frequency of the competitions and the value of the prizes, often quite symbolic, that could be won. While for some chambers, four competitions per year were enough, for the Antwerp chamber, De Violieren, it was a weekly competition!
Very quickly, these activities gave rise to public festivities, celebrated successively in all the major cities. The Landjuweel skillfully combined several genres of theatrical and musical dramaturgy, which had previously been separate, into a single large city festival:
- The “Mystery Plays » and « Miracle Plays » (Mirakel-spelen, passie-spelen) street theater or large tableaux vivants, sometimes on floats (wagen-spelen). The Mystère de la Passion by Arnoul de Gréban, performed thousands of times throughout France, was a play of 34,000 verses requiring 394 actors reenacting the last five days of the life of Christ.
- The « Feast of Fools » or « Feast of the Innocents », masquerades and disguises organized by « joyous societies » in which the clergy had actively participated since the XIIth century. We were then witnessing a total reversal of society: the woman became the boy, the child the bishop, the teacher the student, … The pope was elected, the bishop of fools, the abbot of fools, old shoes were burned in censers, people danced in churches while mumbling Latin in such a way as to trigger many fits of laughter. People danced and sang, accompanied for this by musicians who played wind instruments (flute, trumpet or bagpipes) or string instruments (hurdy-gurdy, harp, lute). It was not uncommon to find serious confusion reigning within convents: nocturnal relations between the abbot of fools and the minor abbesses or even mock weddings between a bishop and a superior. For the Feast of Fools, the lower clergy disguised themselves, wore hideous masks and smeared themselves with soot. The costume and attributes of fools became established in the XVth century. Popes, councils and various authorities published texts aimed at suppressing the said festival from the XIIth century onwards.
- The Ommegang (literally « going around » the church and the city) were religious processions, organized by the church and the crossbowmen’s guilds in honor of the saints whose statues were carried on their shoulders. If in Brussels, the Ommegang became an opportunity for nobles to exhibit themselves in the city (as in 1549 to show their loyalty to the Spanish occupier), in Antwerp, two Ommegangs followed one another: the first, religious, at Pentecost, the second, on the feast of the Assumption, with a strong secular participation of the guilds, trades and chambers of rhetoric, each of them contributing a float to a procession in the streets of the city.
- Carnival, the new name given by the Church to the « Saturnalia, » the great eight-day Roman festivities in honor of Saturn, god of agriculture and time, during the winter solstice. This period of costumed celebrations and freedoms, particularly in Venice, which developed between the XIth and XIIIth centuries, was supervised by the Church, which considered it necessary to avoid popular revolts. It featured a reversal of roles and the election of a false king. Slaves were then free to speak and act as they wished and were served by their masters. The festivities were accompanied by large meals.
The Rhetoricians rightly believed that these genres complemented each other perfectly. The festivals therefore alternated, without losing the hierarchy of the depth of the meaning that one wanted to convey, both pieces with spiritual and religious content (mysteries, passions) and pieces with philosophical, didactic and moralizing content (zinne-spelen), without forgetting satire, farce and other humorous things (sotties, esbattements, etc.).

Historically, the stage where such events took place moved from the nave of churches, first to the forecourt of cathedrals and finally to the public space in the wider sense, first in the open air (in the Great Square, in the cemetery, on a chariot) before being forced by the authorities to occur exclusively in closed halls.
Among the competitions organized by the Chambers of Rhetoric, the oldest known was that of Brussels in 1394. The one in Oudenaarde, which took place in 1413, is better documented. These were followed by those of Furnes in 1419, Dunkirk in 1426, Bruges in 1427 and 1441, Mechelen in 1427 and Damme in 1431.
Landjuweel

The Landjuwelen were originally a cycle of seven competitions between communal militias practicing their skills in the use of weapons: the Schutterijen of the Duchy of Brabant. The highest luminaries of the country attended such shootings; they were even honored by sovereigns.
The idea was to organize a Landjuweel every three years. The winner of the first competition would organize the next competition and so on; the winners of the seventh Landjuweel would start a new cycle. The winner of the first tournament, having obtained a silver cup, would make two silver dishes for the winner of the second Landjuweel in a cycle, and the latter would in turn make three for the winner of the next competition, and so on until the seventh tournament in the cycle.
There was close cooperation between the knightly societies of the cities of Bruges and Lille in Flanders, as well as between Bruges and Brussels. Like Bruges, Lille organized an annual tournament, « L’Espinette. »
Every February, a delegation from Bruges came to Lille to compete in the tournament, just as the inhabitants of Lille participated in the annual competition of the White Bear in Bruges, which took place in May. This spectacle gave rise to festivities to which the poets of Bruges also contributed. They wrote the scenarios for the esbattements, recited praises, and reported on these activities in their chronicles.
There were no quarrels about differences of languages. Prizes were established to reward works in either French or Dutch, depending on the lingua franca of the city where the competition was held. But sometimes, at the same competition, a prize was awarded for works in both languages. This was notably the case in Ghent in 1439. Prizes were also awarded for the most beautiful entry.
Themes in the form of questions were suggested, which only authorized chambers could answer in verse. These questions were resolved by the « factors » and generally had a moral or political purpose. Thus, in 1431, in the midst of the wars between France and Flanders allied to Britain, the Chamber of Rhetoric of Arras, formerly a city named Atrecht in the Burgundian Low Countries, posed the question « Why is peace, so eagerly desired, so slow in coming »? Note that in 1435, the Peace of Arras, organized by the friends of Nicolas Cusanus, Jacques Coeur and Yolande d’Aragon, sealed the end of the Hundred Years’ War. 21
Political and economic context

Through alliances and marriages, the Burgundian Low Countries fell under the control of the Habsburg family, who were completely at the mercy of the famous Augsburg bank, the evil Fuggers, known as the fathers of « financial fascism ». 22
Hence, when Maximilian I, of the Habsburg family and Holy Roman Emperor, died in 1519, he owed Jacob Fugger approximately 350,000 florins. To prevent default on this investment, Fugger assembled a cartel of bankers to gather all the necessary bribe money to enable Maximilian’s grandson, Charles V, to buy the vote and succeed him to the throne. Thus, Jacob Fugger, in direct liaison with Margaret of Austria, who joined the project because of her fears for peace in Europe, centrally gathered the money to bribe each Elector, taking advantage of the opportunity to dramatically strengthen his monopolistic positions, particularly over competitors such as the Welsers and the rapidly expanding port of Antwerp. 23
Charles V, in the 1520s, had to borrow at 18% and even 49% between 1553 and 1556. To maintain the enormous expenditures to oversee his vast Empire, Charles V had no choice but to pursue a predatory policy. He sold his mines to appease the bankers, gave them carte blanche to colonize the New World, and consented to the pillaging of the most prosperous region of his Empire, Flanders and Brabant, which were subject to taxes and tithes to pay for the « war economy. » 24
The rather spectacular rise of the Northern Renaissance, which gained access, thanks to the learning of Greek, Latin and Hebrew, notably thanks to the Three Language College founded by Erasmus in Louvain in 1515 25, to science and all the wealth of the classical period, was to collide head-on with the battering rams of feudal finance which had become an ogre.
Charles V ordered that a list of authors to be proscribed be drawn up in his states, thus foreshadowing the establishment of the Index a few years later. From 1520 to 1550, he promulgated thirteen repressive edicts against heresy, introducing a modern inquisition based on the Spanish model.

The application of these « placards » remained rather weak until the arrival of Philip II due to the lukewarm attitude of Queen Regent Mary of Hungary (1505-1558) and local elites towards them. Their application was entrusted to the urban and provincial judicial authorities, as well as to the Grand Council of Mechelen, with the supervision of a specific tribunal, established in 1522 in the Burgundian Low Countries based on the model of the Spanish Inquisition.
In 1540, the Jesuit order was founded, initially tasked with obtaining by word what could not be obtained by the sword. It quickly turned to the use of theater! From 1545 to 1563, the Council of Trent met to impose reforms and seek to eradicate Protestant heresy. Reading the Bible was now forbidden to ordinary mortals, as was discussing and illustrating it. Albrecht Dürer, the great German engraver and geometer based in Antwerp, packed his bags in 1521 to return to Nuremberg, and Erasmus went into exile in Basel the same year. The great Flemish cartographer Gerard Mercator, educated by the Erasmians and suspected of heresy, was imprisoned in 1544. Released from prison, he went into exile in Germany in 1552. Because of their religious beliefs, Jan and Cornelis, the two sons of Quinten Matsys 26, left Antwerp and went into exile in 1544.
Charles V abdicated in 1555 to leave his place to his son Philip II. The latter returned to Spain and entrusted the regency of the Burgundian Low Countries to his half-sister Margaret of Parma (1522-1586).
While the administration of the Burgundian Low Countries was officially carried out through the Council of State, composed of the stadholders and the high nobility, a secret council (the consulta) created by Philip II and composed of Charles de Berlaymont (1510-1578), Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (1517-1582) and Viglius van Aytta (1507-1577) was responsible for making the most important decisions, particularly concerning taxation, order, administration and religion, and thus transformed the Council of State into a simple consultative chamber.



Three disputes quickly arose: the presence of Spanish troops in the Seventeen Provinces, the establishment of new dioceses in the Burgundian Low Countries, and the fight against Protestantism. Spanish troops remaining from the Italian Wars, approximately 3,000 strong, were not paid and were pillaging the country. After much hesitation by Philip II, and under threat of the simultaneous resignation of Orange and Egmont, the troops finally left in January 1561.

The first victims of persecution in Europe were Antwerp’s Hendrik Vos and Jan Van Essen, two augustinian monks who had become friends of Luther, executed in Brussels on July 1, 1523. 27 The first Walloon victim was the Tournai theologian Jean Castellain, executed in Vic, Lorraine, on January 12, 1525. 28
Many victims were Catholic clergy who had converted to the Reformation, but also many women. From 1529, the persecutions took a dramatic turn following the adoption of the imperial placard generalizing the death penalty. 40% of executions for heresy in the West between 1523 and 1565 occurred in the Burgundian Low Countries. The 17 Provinces were one of the regions that suffered the highest rate of death sentences relative to its entire population. Approximately 1,500 people were executed, an intensity thirty times higher than in France. 29
They will only strengthen the opposition to the tyranny which will lead in 1576 William of Orange (known as « The Silent ») to take the lead in the revolt of the Burgundian Low Countries, ending 80 years later with the split between the north (the Netherlands, predominantly Protestant) and the south (Belgium, exclusively Catholic).
Ghent, 1539

In June 1539, the De Fonteine (The Fountain) Chamber of Ghent summoned the dramatic and literary societies of the country to a great landjuweel in honor of the Holy Trinity, for which Emperor Charles V granted permission and a month’s safe conduct to those wishing to participate.
An invitation charter was published on this subject. It posed, for the morality play, a question thus formulated: « What is the greatest consolation of the dying man? »
This subject clearly echoes one of Erasmus‘s popular writings, quickly translated into Dutch in the year of its publication in 1534, De preparatione ad Mortem. 30
Nineteen rhetorician societies responded to the call: these were chambers established in Antwerp, Oudenaarde, Axel, Bergues, Bruges, Brussels, Courtrai, Deinze, Enghien, Kaprijke, Leffinge, Lo (in the Furnes Trade), Menin, Messines, Neuve-Église, Nieuwpoort, Tielt, Tirlemont, and Ypres.
The chamber known as « De Violieren » from Antwerp won first prize. Pieter Huys de Bergues won second prize, consisting of three silver vases weighing seven marks on which the entrance to an academy was engraved. His poem comprises about five hundred verses in Dutch, and it features five allegorical figures under the names of Benevolence, Observance of the Laws, the Consoled Heart, Consolation, and the Contrite Heart. Each of them lists the goods in which man finds happiness at the hour of death. For De Violieren, the greatest consolation was « the resurrection of the body, » a purely Catholic dogma.
But that was without counting on the « off » part of the competition. Because the three other questions, to be answered in chorus, were:
- « Which animal in the world gains the most strength? »
- « Which nation in the world shows the most madness? »
- « Would I be relieved if I could talk to him? »
As a result, the majority of allegorical plays performed were bloody satires against the Pope, monks, indulgences, pilgrimages, Cardinal Granvelle, etc. The compositions of the Ghent laureates were published first in quarto format, then in duodecimo.
From the moment they appeared, these plays were banned, and it was not without reason that, later, this landjuweel was cited as the first to have stirred the literary country in favor of the Protestant Reformation. These works being far from favorable to the Spanish regime, the Duke of Alba ordered their suppression by the Index of 1571 and, later, the government of the Burgundian Low Countries even banned theatrical performances of the Chambers of Rhetoric.
The influence of Erasmus

In Antwerp, Erasmus‘s influence was notable, and his presence was sought after. Well-known was his friendship to the city’s secretary Pieter Gilles 31, an Antwerp erudite humanist dearly appreciated by Thomas More 32 who integrated Gillis poems in his opus majus, Utopia. To please More, Pieter Gillis and Erasmus got their portraits done by Quinten Matsys33 to whom they offered their double portrait. Gillis house in Antwerp was also a regular meeting point for all the leading humanists of that time.

Between 1523 and 1584, 21 publishers published no fewer than 47 editions of the humanist’s works, and the rhetorician Cornelis Crul, before 1550, translated the Colloquies and other major works into Dutch.
Most rhetoricians mastered Latin and could therefore read Erasmus in the original. Some Latin schools, as documented in the case of Gouda for the year 152134, included selected writings for each grade in their curriculum. The humanist’s prestige spread throughout Europe.
Ferdinand Columbus (1488-1539), the very bibliophile son of Christopher Columbus, not only acquired a vast series of his works, but also traveled to Louvain in October 1520 to meet their author. 35
In a letter dated 1521, Hieronymus Aleander (1480-1542), the legate of Pope Leo X, warned of « elements having bad reputation » who were thriving in Antwerp. They presented themselves « as the defenders of good literature and were all from the school of our friend who became a great name [Erasmus]. » Aleander added that « He [Erasmus] has spoiled all of Flanders! » 36

De Violieren and the Guild of Saint Luke

Also in Antwerp, a Chamber of Rhetoric, De Violieren (The Gillyflowers), was officially created in 1480 within the Guild of Saint Luke, the artists’ guild dating back from 1382. 37
The rhetoricians’ motto was « Uyt ionsten versaemt » (United by affection. But « ionsten » is also close to « consten », the Flemish word for arts).
This symbiosis produced fruitful results. For most historians, De Violieren were, in a way, the literary branch of the Guild of Saint Luke.
The latter was composed of all trades related to the fine arts, including painters, sculptors, illuminators, engravers, and printers. Until 1664, the guild had its headquarters on the north side of Antwerp’s Grote Markt, in the Spaengien or Spanish House.
Between 1460 and 1560, to finance its activities, the Church rented out to artists the Onze-Lieve-Vrouwepand, a claustrum with galleries surrounding an open courtyard. In this building, art painters, sculptors, cabinetmakers and booksellers could rent a stand where they could display their wares for sale. It was the largest art fair in what was then Europe. After 1560, the market moved to the second floor of the new Handelsbeurs (Trade Exchange).
The Saint-Luke artist guild:

- In 1491, Erasmus’s friend, the painter Quinten Matsys 38, was listed as a master. One of his major commissions, the Triptych of the Lamentation of Christ, came from the carpenters’ guild. According to the Antwerp chief city archivist Van den Branden, Matsys himself was a member of De Violieren and wrote poems for their contests.
- In 1515, Matsys was joined in the Guild of Saint Luke by two other great artists equally inspired by the spirit of Erasmus, Joachim Patinir (1480-1524) and Gerard David (1460-1523).
- In 1519, the guild registers (The Liggeren 39) mention the registration of Jan Sanders van Hemessen (1500-1566), whose daughter Catharina (1528-1565) would become the first female painter in 1548 – and teacher of painting to men – to be admitted to the painters’ guild;
- In 1527, that of Pieter Coecke van Aelst (1502-1550), Bruegel’s master;
- in 1531, those of Matsys’s two children, Jan and Cornelis;
- in 1540, that of Peter Baltens (1527-1584);
- in 1545, that of the engraver and printer Hieronymous Cock (1510-1570) whose workshop produced prints of Bruegel and Dutch revolutionary poet and translator Dirk Coornhert (1522-1590), close friend and collaborator of William the Silent (1533-1583);
- in 1550, that of the great printer Christophe Plantin (1520-1589);
- and in 1551, that of Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569). 40
In short, several of the Low Countries towering cultural personalities, assisted or certainly could have asisted at the Antwerp 1561 Landjuweel: Jan Sanders van Hemissen and his daughter Catherina; Jan and Cornelis Matsys, sons of Quinten Matsys; Peter Baltens, Hieronymous Cock, Dirk Coornehert, William the Silent, Christophe Plantin and Pieter Breugel the Elder. 41
The daily exchanges between the rhetoricians and the most important artists of the day united in the Violieren had a beneficial influence on their activities and, after a few years, made them one of the most successful societies in Brabant.

In the most important competitions, De Violieren won laurels: first prize in 1493 in Brussels, in 1515 in Mechelen and in 1539 in Ghent, in a memorable fight in which 19 chambers from different regions of the country participated.
In August 1541, a competition was held in Diest, organized by the local Chamber De Lelie in which ten other chambers from Brabant participated. The grand prize was awarded to the Antwerp Chamber, De Violieren, for the presentation of an esbattement (farce).
Antwerp, 1561
As was customary, the Chamber that won the best prize was in turn to organize a Landjuweel. This was also the opinion of De Violieren, after his feat in Diest; however, the circumstances of the time meant that the subject was postponed. 20 years passed before anyone could think of organizing such an artistic competition.
Three leaders of De Violieren, with great courage, will fully commit to the initiative, risking their reputation, honor, life and heritage:

- Anthonis van Stralen (1521-1568) was the leader of De Violieren. As a member of the Antwerp city council, Van Stralen had been closely involved in obtaining the patent. His appointment as city leader, two months before the first attempt at rapprochement with the Council of Brabant, must have been a strategic move on the part of De Violieren. In May 1561, he was promoted to mayor of Antwerp, perhaps as a reward for his services. The success of the Landjuweel was largely due to the cooperation between the Antwerp magistrate and De Violieren’s board.
- Melchior Schetz (c. 1513-1583) was the Prince of De Violieren. He was Van Stralen’s brother-in-law and also an alderman.
He was one of the three children (Gaspard, Balthasar and Melchior) of the leading Antwerp merchant Erasmus Schetz (died in 1550), known as the « banker of Erasmus ». 42 With his three sons, he set up a major banking and merchant firm. 43 His friendship with Erasmus is symptomatic of the popularity Erasmus enjoyed in Antwerp. He provided him with his hospitable residence: the Huis van Aken, a palace where he had received Charles V himself. In a letter, he made him, among other things, this tempting proposition:
« My heart and the souls of so many people long for your presence among us. I have often wondered what enchantment it was that kept you there rather than among us. Peter Gillis [city secretary and their mutual friend] gave me a reason: we do not have Burgundy wine, which best suits your temperament, do not fear this, and if this is the only obstacle holding you back, do not hesitate to come back; we will see to it that you are supplied with wine, and not only Burgundy wine, but also Persian and Indian wine if you desire and need it . »
As Prince of De Violieren, his son Melchior represented the chamber most often publicly. He must also have been responsible for the financial organization of the Chamber. Schetz was one of the largest moneylenders in Antwerp. There is no doubt that the city financially facilitated the organization of the festival. - Willem van Haecht (1530-1585) : Born into a family of painters and engravers, he was a draughtsman and, presumably, also a bookseller by profession. His motto was Behaegt Gods wille (translated as « conform to the will of God »). Van Haecht was a friend of the Brussels humanist and author Johan Baptista Houwaert (1533-1599). He compares Houwaert to Cicero in the introductory eulogy to Houwaert’s The Lusthof der Maechden, written by him and published in 1582 or 1583. In his eulogy, Van Haecht states that every sensible man should recognize that Houwaert writes with eloquence and excellence. Van Haecht wrote lyrics for various songs, usually of Christian inspiration. This is the case for the lyrics of a five-part polyphonic song, Ghelijc den dach hem baert, diet al verclaert, probably composed by Hubert Waelrant (1517-1595) for the overture to the play De Violieren at the landjuweel of 1561. The poem was also printed on a loose leaf with musical notation. As early as 1552, Van Haecht was affiliated with De Violieren, whose members included Cornelis Floris de Vriendt (1514-1575), the main architect of the Renaissance-style Town Hall in Antwerp, as well as painters Frans Floris de Vriendt (c. 1519-1570) and Maerten de Vos (1532-1603). Van Haecht became the « factor » (title poet) of De Violieren in 1558.




Other people involved in the organization of the Landjuweel included printers such as Jan de Laet (1524-1566) and renowned artists such as Hieronymus Cock (c. 1510-1570) (founder of the In de Vier Winden printing house which published Bruegel’s engravings) and Jacob Grimmer (1510-1590).
The other major figure was Peeter Baltens (1527-1584) 44 an Antwerp painter, rhetorician, engraver and publisher. Baltens was a member of the Guild of Saint Luke and De Violieren. Having partly trained Bruegel, Baltens’ role proved particularly important.
He formed close friendships (notably with the widows of both Hieronymus Cock (c. 1510-1570) and Pieter Coecke van Aelst (1502-1550), the latter also being Bruegel’s stepmother) and collaborated with the greatest names in Antwerp of his time.
He associated with Antwerp patricians such as Jonker Jan van der Noot (1539-1595), the wealthy Schetz merchant family, and wealthy merchants such as Nicolaes Jonghelinck (1517-1570), merchant banker and Bruegel’s financial backer.
According to Lode Goukens,
« Baltens was instrumental to the lobbying of a group of powerbrokers belonging to the moderate party. A moderate party that valued peace, harmony and good business more than religion, extremism or state terror. A party that wanted to return to a status quo from before the troubles. »45

Herman Pleij notes that the Rhetoricians have as consignment to repolish the reputation of the Antwerp merchant by making the distinction between the honest ones and the sharks. 46
Research into the relationships between painters, poets (or rederijkers), and merchants has shown that these three groups developed a common cultural lifestyle in the XVIth century, in which the love of science and art occupied a central place.
To launch a rhetoric competition, permission had to be obtained from the country’s government, which was no longer easily done at that time. This was a consequence of the Ghent competition of 1539, when the ideas of new doctrines against the institutions of the Catholic religion were presented and defended without the slightest qualm.
However, De Violieren and the elected representatives of Antwerp (Van Stralen and Schetz) were fiercely determined to be able to organize their Landjuweel. The man who did the most to delay obtaining authorization was the hated Cardinal Perrenot de Granvelle (1517-1582), Archbishop of Mechelen and advisor to Margaret of Parma (1522-1586), following the abdication of the Emperor, her brother Charles V, the regent of the Burgundian Low Countries.
Organization of the Landjuweel
In February 1561, the delegates of the city of Antwerp approached Granvelle with a petition to the regent, in which they argued that De Violieren, compared to the other Chambers, were statutorily obliged to organize a competition.

Granvelle hoped to torpedo the initiative, but realizing that a brutal rejection would have inflamed the opposition, he sought various pretexts to postpone the event indefinitely. He politely made it clear to the delegates that he wished to postpone such an event for a while longer, using the pretext that, thanks to the peace agreement between France and the Habsburgs, the war had just been suspended, and that such festivals represented significant expenses, while the country could not or would not bear the costs. This did little to deter the people of Antwerp. They replied that the previous year, permission had been granted to the Chamber of Vilvoorde and that a postponement could not reasonably be imagined. Sensing that they would only renounce it with immense disgust, Granvelle reluctantly agreed to present their request to Marguerite, while asserting that the government had given itself the right to levy taxes on all those who came to the competition.
Fearing above all that the festival would become a sounding board for all those criticizing the Spanish occupation and the abuses of the Church, Granvelle also summoned them to inform the participating chambers that they would not intervene in their plays, their esbattements or their poems with a single word against religion, the clergy or the government, otherwise they would not only lose the prize they might have won, but would also be punished and deprived of their privileges and rights; and that the Chamber of Antwerp should ensure that the city was well guarded during the festivities and that no disturbances could arise.

Margaret of Parma, often at odds with Madrid, was less fearful and more open.
After consulting the report provided by the Council of Brabant, which was well aware that too much repression encouraged protest, she placed the apostille on March 22, 1561, inviting the Chancellor of the Duchy to provide Antwerp with the sealed letters required to organize the Landjuweel.
These letters were issued the same day in the name of the king and granted safe conduct from fourteen days before the start until fourteen days after the end of the Landjuweel to all those who wished to attend, with the exception of
« all murderers, thieves and other criminals, as well as declared enemies of the king, rebels and those banned from the Holy Roman Empire. »47
The Antwerp Chamber submitted 24 themes as potential topics for the Landjuweel competition (seen below). Among those, Margaret of Parma approved three topics among which the Chamber was free to pick one. 48
- Does experience or learning bring more wisdom? »
- « What most leads man towards the arts? »
- « Why does a rich and greedy man desire more wealth? »
Philosophy
To show how much our rhetoricians, under the direction of Van Straelen and Schertz, dealt with philosophical and political questions of all kinds, here are the whole of the twenty-four subjects which they had submitted 49:
- What made Rome triumph?
- What caused Rome to decline the most?
- Is it experience or knowledge that brings more wisdom?
- What can lead man most towards Art?
- What feeds art?
- Why is man so desirous of temporal things?
- What shortens the days of men?
- What lengthens the days of men?
- Why is average wealth the most happiness in the world?
- What is the greatest prosperity in this world ?
- What is the biggest setback in this world?
- How is it that all things are consumed every day?
- If a miserly man can be discouraged?
- Why does a rich miser desires even more wealth?
- Why does wealth not extinguish greed?
- Why is amusement followed by displeasure?
- Why does lust breed remorse?
- Why does lust bring its own punishment?
- How did the Romans achieve such a great prosperity?
- What sort of government kept the Romans prosperous ?
- What art is most necessary for a city?
- What can bring the world more rest [peace] ?
- What most drives people to worldly pride?
- What would be the best way to eradicate usery?
At first glance, one could say that by choosing the question « What can lead man most towards Art? »50, Van Stralen and Schetz choose the least « political » subject. This is to misunderstand Erasmus and Platonic thought for whom beauty and goodness form a unity and for whom any government that does not promote beauty, neglects it or worse still, despises it, condemns itself to failure! In practice, poets starting from this higher principle, ended blasting, without explicitly naming them, all the criminals and warmongereres of those days.
Moreover, Willem van Haecht, the « factor » (official poet) of De Violieren, in the play he composed especially for the Landjuweel of Antwerp in 1561, would say that what led Empires to their decline was, as it still is today, their lack of esteem for the Arts, including obviously Rhetoric.
So, it was on this theme that the 5000 participants (!) of the Landjuweel, and beyond a large part of the country, began to reflect, to compose songs, dramas, refrains, allegories, rebuses, pintings and farces and presented them to thousands of fellow citizens.
Amazingly, two centuries before (!) Friedrich Schiller, the German poet that earned the name of « poet of freedom » and who inspired many revolutions at the end of the XVIIIth century, a humanist elite enlightened by Erasmus in the Low Countries led a substantial part of the country to rise up to the conditions of a durable peace by emancipating itself from serfdom and ignorance through moral beauty! The Antwerp Landjuweel of 1561 was much more than a feast, it was a shift of paradigm and a real game changer. Hats off!
After receiving permission, the Chamber of Rhetoric and the City Council immediately set about giving the great literary festival as much pomp as possible. A rhymed invitation card was drawn up, stating the subject of the competition and the prizes to be won.

On April 23, this invitation card was presented by Mayor Nicolaas Rockox, in the presence of Melchior Schetz and Anthonis van Stralen, at the Antwerp City Hall to four sworn messengers, who were instructed to convey it to all the Chambers of Rhetoric in Brabant and to invite them to the Landjuweel as well. These messengers traveled at the city’s expense and first went to Leuven, the oldest city in Brabant. Everywhere, the news of a Landjuweel in Antwerp was greeted with extraordinary joy, and the messengers were very generously received.
While in most cities of Brabant the rhetoricians were busy composing and teaching plays and poems, making triumphal chariots and painting coats of arms, in Antwerp they were not inactive.
De Violieren had beautiful new clothes made for its members, at the suggestion of Melchior Schetz, for the welcoming ceremony offered to the participants.

An elegant theatre stage was erected on Antwerp’s Grote Markt (Great Square), designed by Cornelis Floris. Coincidentally, it was installed on the exact spot where the Inquisition had been beheading « heretics. » The audience watched the performances standing, with the exception of the jury and high-ranking officials, for whom benches were provided.
There was excitement and liveliness everywhere; every citizen wanted to do their part to welcome the foreign guests with all possible pomp and wealth. The city council, for its part, had taken the necessary measures.
All residents of the streets where the rhetoricians were to pass were ordered to clear the streets and remove any scaffolding or obstacles that might hinder their passage.
Everyone was eagerly awaiting August 3rd, the day when the formal entry would take place and the Landjuweel games would begin.
A memorable day

August 3, 1561, is indeed a memorable day in the history of Antwerp. The city was dressed in its festive attire; on the facades of houses, flags, pennants, and festoons; in public places, graceful arches in the opulent Renaissance style.
It’s no secret that the people of Antwerp like to make a lot of money. But they also like to spend it lavishly! In that marvelous XVIth century, they took pleasure in displaying a splendor on such occasions that, so to speak, surpasses our imagination.



Everywhere there was joy and life. Many strangers passed through the streets; all, foreigners and locals alike, agreed to maintain the best possible order amidst this agitation and commotion. 51
At 2:00 p.m., the « brothers » of De Violieren guild gathered to ride together to the Keizerspoort to meet the participating chambers. There were 65 of them, mounted on magnificently adorned horses, in their precious uniforms. These consisted of tabards of purple silk, striped with white satin or silver cloth, white doublets striped with red, white stockings and boots, and purple hats with red, white, and purple plumes.
At the Keizerspoort, the participating foreign chambers were solemnly received. There were 14 of them, and to the sound of bugles and the cheers of the crowd, they entered Antwerp, following the Huidevetterstraat, the Eiermarkt, and the Melkmarkt to the Grote Markt in front of the City Hall (at that time under construction).

The procession was grandiose and impressive; nothing like it had ever been seen before in these parts. Without the Guild brothers on the chariots, the coat-of-arms bearers, the squires, the footmen, the trumpeters, the drummers, and other musicians on foot, the number of mounted rhetoricians from all the towns amounted to 1,393, that of the chariots to 23, and that of the other chariots to 197. 52

After weeks of competition between the large and medium-sized towns during the Landjuweel, followed an additional week of « Hagespelen, » that is, the less lavish but less expensive competitions between the townships, villages, and municipalities. The formats were so varied that by the end of the month, not a single town, village, or municipality was without a prize.

And once back in their cities, all these cultural actors, actors, singers, poets, jokers, and comical fools, energized like never before by the encounter with an entire nation, reenacted at home the piece or play that had won them a prize. To the extent that each chamber that won a prize was obliged to organize a new competition, a true effect of cultural diffusion and contamination was infused into the country.

The joy and proudness was such that the Chamber of Vilvorde did a special performance for the opening of the newly built Brussels-Willebroek canal in octobre 1561. The project for a 28 km long canal, connecting Brussels to the Scheldt (and therefore to Antwerp and the Sea) had been discussed since 1415 but it was Mary of Hungary in 1550 who kickstarted its actual construction.
The splendid Landjuweel of Antwerp impressed the spectators, among them Richard Clough53, the representative of the English financier Thomas Gresham. The merchant did not hide his admiration and was full of praise for the festivities, drawing a comparison with the entry of Philip II and Charles V into Antwerp in 1549.
He could only note that the organization of the Landjuweel was larger and the spectacle more impressive:
« the arrival of King Philip II in Antwerp, with the cost of all the rhetoricians gathered in their robes, is not comparable to what the city of Brussels has done. (…) I wish to God that some of our great and noble men of England had seen this, (…) and it would make them think that there are others like us, and thus foresee the time to come; for those who can do this, can do more. »54
Peace and art, united for celebration
On Tuesday, August 5, two days after the grand reception of the participating chambers, the visiting rhetoricians, along with the rest of the spectators, were solemnly welcomed on the Grand Place in Antwerp.
De Violieren then offer a welcoming zinnespel (morality): Den Wellecomme (The Welcome), written by Willem van Haecht. At the heart of the play is the proclaimed peace of 1559, which made possible the organization of the Landjuweel, a national gathering symbolizing the renewed awakening of the Art of Rhetoric, for which peace was a necessary condition. The duchy had suffered greatly in the 1550s, but had slowly recovered after the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559). There was hope for better times. Literary reactions to the peace were therefore particularly optimistic. The dawn of a new golden age was on everyone’s mind.
The play features three flower nymphs—sisters—who together represent De Violieren. After years of war, the Chamber was given the opportunity to organize the Landjuweel. For this, the nymphs owe a great debt of gratitude to the people of Brabant. Despite the difficult times and growing divisions between the different social groups, the people remained united.
It is « Concordia, » the feeling of unity and solidarity, that now unites the defenders of the public good. Out of love for the art of rhetoric, everyone has come from far and wide to Antwerp to celebrate the Landjuweel together. According to the nymphs, it is high time that the character of Rethorica resumes her rightful place in society. Now that the war god Mars and the hated Discordia have been driven out, she alone can bring joy and peace to the country. Only the seed of rhetoric (« Rethorices saet ») can bear fruit of joy.
So the flowers set out in search of Rethorica. In other words: De Violieren primarily describes the Landjuweel as a festival of joy, organized by the Chambers of Rhetoric to strengthen the sense of community and bonds of friendship between the region’s cities.

Eventually, the nymphs find Rhetorica, asleep in the arms of a young girl (Antwerp), who has always protected her. While the goddesses of vengeance (« Erinniae ») ravaged the country for twenty years, rhetoric was always protected and cherished in Antwerp. Now it is time to awaken her from her long winter sleep.
Once awakened, Rhetorica and the Landjuweel will mark the beginning of a period of prosperity and an awakening of the arts, for Antwerp and for the world, an allegorical theme developed by Frans Floris, the rhetorician and friend of Van Haecht, in his work The Awakening of the Arts (circa 1560).

This allegorical work commemorates the signing of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, the most important peace agreement of the war-torn 16th century.
In a landscape ravaged by war, Philip II of Spain (it was hoped) assumes the role of Apollo, represented by the bearded figure in the center. The sun god awakens the liberal arts, represented by women endowed with attributes (sculptors’ cradles, poets’ feather, musicians’ scores, cartographers’ globes, etc.). With his left hand, Philip II shows four women warding off an abject Mars, the god of war, stripped of his sword and battle trophies. The scene symbolizes a new era of cultural prosperity made possible by peace.
The play Den Wellecomme not only exudes an atmosphere of joy and euphoria, but also launches a few barbs at the oppressors. The Chambers retained a bitter aftertaste. In the preceding years, several rhetoricians had been struck by fate. The previous factor, the highly praised Jan van den Berghe (died in 1559) , had died of old age. In addition, two prominent members had fallen victim to religious persecution. The printers Frans Fraet (1505-1558) and Willem Touwaert Cassererie (c. 1478-1558) were condemned and executed in 1558, despite the vigorous protests of their guild, for printing and being found in possession of forbidden books (Dutch Bibles).

Antwerp was the Northern European centre of heterodox publishing in the first half of the sixteenth century. From Antwerp the books were shipped all over Europe. Alastair Duke, who studied the methods of the Inquisition in this period, has suggested that of four thousand books published in Europe between 1500 and 1540, half were printed in Antwerp 55 almost half of those publications contained Protestant influences. 56
These persecutions increased the central government’s distrust of the rhetoricians. These were not easy times for them. The art of rhetoric « doesn’t have many friends, » as Van Haecht puts it. 57 Although the Landjuweel was designed to celebrate peace and not to express discontent, the horror of the past war years and the resulting divisions were clearly palpable.
The contest was to be held under the banner of friendship and solidarity – not without reason the motto of De Violieren. Referring to the miracle of Pentecost, the invitation card compares the Brabant rhetoricians to the apostles, who received the Holy Spirit by gathering together in unity, without disagreement or conflict. This motif was common among rhetoricians.
Already in the poems of Anthonis de Roovere (c. 1430-1482), the Ghent plays of 1539, and in Matthijs de Castelein ‘s Const van Rhetoriken (c. 1485-1550), the rhetorician’s inspiration were compared to the religious enthusiasm of the apostles at Pentecost. Rhetoricians saw their poetry as a gift from the Holy Spirit.
This is strongly reminiscent of the discourse Erasmus presents in his Querella pacis (The Complaint for Peace, 1517). In this famous pamphlet for peace, the miracle of Pentecost is also used to emphasize the importance of unity and love in society. Only the Christian religion, according to Erasmus, had the strength to defend itself against tyranny and war. The well-being of the whole society has always taken priority over any form of personal interest.
An « invitation card » was personnaly transmitted by messagers to all the chambers in Brabant, accompanied by a woodcut (probably also designed by Willem van Haecht). The print emphasizes the importance of rhetoric in achieving peace.

Rhetoric sits enthroned in the center, her attributes being a scroll and a lily, symbols respectively of the qualities of promoting knowledge and harmonizing the art of rhetoric. On either side of Rhetoric are Prudentia (left) and Inventio (right). Prudentia —Providence—is depicted holding a mirror (insight) and a serpent (prudence) in her hands. Inventio —Invention—has the attributes of a compass and a book. These two personifications refer to the qualities of careful design and erudition. Both personifications are intended to support Rhetoric. They stand on a raised step, on which grows the violet flower. Beneath the flower, the ox of the Guild of Saint Luke supports the coat of arms of the Antwerp painters’ guild. The personifications Pax, Charitas, and Ratio come to the left of the throne to pay homage to Rhetoric.
Divine light (Lux) illuminates them. On the right, Ira, Invidia, and Discordia are pursued into a burning depth (tenebrae). The darkness of the past thus gives way to an illuminated future in which rhetoric reigns. In contrast to the text on the invitation card, here the art of rhetoric ensures peace. There was thus a constant interaction between rhetoric and peace.
In De Violieren’s « invitation » and welcome piece, peace created the conditions in which rhetoric could flourish. In the woodcut, it is precisely the art of rhetoric that drives anger, envy, and discord into the darkness, making use of its qualities of insight and invention. Its divine light creates the conditions in which peace, love, and reason can flourish.
The three positive allegories on the left of the Rhetoric are deliberately contrasted with the three figures on its right. Ratio is placed against Ira, Charitas against Invidia, and Pax against Discordia. In his design, Van Haecht chose discord (Discordia) rather than war (Bellum) as the opposite of peace (Pax).
The concept of peace was deeply rooted in the urban community’s value system. In this discourse, peace, along with justice, order, and community spirit, constituted one of the pillars of internal social cohesion. Peace protected the city from the outside world and maintained balance between the different urban segments, particularly through the exercise of cohesion and solidarity. Moreover, peace, both spiritual and material, brought well-being and prosperity. But this could only be achieved if all urban groups worked together in unison.
Discord, whether between guilds, between sections of the urban patriciate, between rich and poor, or between religious factions, posed the greatest threat to internal peace and was to be avoided above all else. 58
The urban discourse on peace followed the idea that God had created the world as a harmonious, orderly, and perfect whole. Discordia personified the breakdown of this creation, of the relationship between God and man, and that between man and nature.
Discord also disrupted the balance between city dwellers, between city and countryside, and between the prince and his subjects. Furthermore, it caused unrest in the human spirit. This concept implied an individual loss of self-control and reason.
Vandommele writes that according to them,
« Every human being is made up of the union of body and soul, which are only in balance when all parts work together harmoniously. Rhetoricians believed their poetry could contribute to this. » 59
Along with music, poetry was, in their eyes, of celestial origin. Both used the theory of harmony to reflect the order of the cosmos and were also used to communicate with God. Moreover, the word « discord » in the literature of the rhetoricians also refers to a lack of harmony in verse and rhyme, an unforgivable offense in poetry.
For all these reasons, discord was considered the main cause of unhappiness. It had to be banished to the depths of hell at all costs. Rhetoricians, thanks to their mastery of poetry and rhetoric, were the ones who could achieve this. They assumed the role of guardians of the peace, responsible for urban sociability.
The Antwerp Landjuweel of 1561, a gigantic cultural mass event recalling the noblest human qualities that unite the good and the beautiful, was a true « cry of the people, » somewhat similar to what France would later experience with the Fête de la Fédération60 before the French Revolution.
At the Landjuweel, enlightened artisans and artists called on the governments of the world to renounce usury, plunder, and war and to organize a lasting peace based on the harmony of mutually beneficial interests.

Censorship, repression and revolt
From 1521, decrees repressed the reading and possession of forbidden books, both Lutheran writings and Bibles. In 1525, the Antwerp judiciary warned printers and booksellers. From 1528, Rhetoricians were required to have their works validated before any production or publication. In 1533, the reform gained ground. Not a day went by without a satirical joust against the clergy. Five rhetoricians from Amsterdam were sentenced to make a pilgrimage to Rome at their own expense. In 1536, a printer who had violated the regulations was beheaded at Antwerp’s Grote Markt. Without a prior permit, the Chambers of Rhetoric could no longer present plays in public. This didn’t prevent the Landjuweel in Ghent in 1939, where freedom prevailed. On October 6 of the same year, the Chancellor of Brabant wrote to the Regent that the sale of the printed collection of plays could have very serious consequences. Consequently, the collection was placed on the index of prohibited books. In 1559, two years before the Landjuweel, Erasmus’ In Praise of Folly and Colloquia were put on the index of forbidden books where they remained till 1900.
A decree also stipulated that it was henceforth forbidden to make references to the Holy Scriptures and the sacraments. The ban on the sale of the collections provoked a counter-reaction and attracted many readers. These works were reprinted three times, the last edition being in 1564, two years before the outbreak of the Beeldenstorm (Iconoclastic Fury). 61
In 1566, the paintings and sculptures in churches and monasteries, relics, and everything associated with the cult of images, were broken and destroyed by the Calvinists, the most radical branch of the Protestants. Immediately suspected of being responsible for this destruction: the erasmian spirited Chambers of Rhetoric!
3 million gold florins to buy religious peace
Once again, the business circles surrounding the Schetz family are attempting to quell the unrest. An important but little-known figure is Jan Vleminck , a erudite Latinist and lord of Wijnigem. Active in international trade, he married Isabelle Schetz on July 21, 1561. She was the daughter of the banker Gaspar Schetz (1513-1580), Baron of Wezemaal, Lord of Grobbendonk, Heist, and Hingene, and Treasurer General to Philip II. Gaspar Schetz himself was the son of Erasmus Schetz, the Antwerp banker mentioned above that supported Erasmus of Rotterdam, and the brother of Melchior Schetz, the instigator and organizer of the Landjuweel.
It was Jan Vleminck who is believed to have commissioned the painting The Census at Bethlehem from Pieter Breugel the Elder, a work now in the Brussels. At the center of the painting stands the De Swaen (The Swan) inn in Wijnegem, a building where Vleminck, who had lent a considerable amount to the King, had the right to collect himsmelf taxes to recoup his investment.62
In their study, Het leven en de tijd van Jan Vleminck, heer van Wijnegem (1526-1568), the authors63offer a passage amply confirming our hypothesis of a business community seeking to obtain peace through diplomacy, tolerance and even… through a large sum of money:
« When Philip II, after the mission of the Count of Egmont to Spain (letters of Segovia, 1565), showed himself unwilling to reduce or abolish the application of the placards, the Judeo-Spanish Calvinist Marco Perez, Jan Janszoon in ‘t Hart, Jacobus Reael, Petrus Dathenus and Christophe Traisnel, had the idea of encouraging the merchants to buy religious freedom directly from Philip II.
The plan was to offer 3 million gold florins, which the merchants would raise and offer to Philip II, to buy religious freedom. A petition to this effect was drawn up, in which they affirmed their loyalty to the king and their desire to remain so. The petitioners appealed to the king not to punish preachers and iconoclasts too severely. Religion, they argued, could not be eradicated by violence. Furthermore, they requested permission to continue public preaching, to convene a general religious council, and to hold the States General of the Netherlands. Although they stated they were considering « changing princes, » they did not refuse to continue paying taxes and reaffirmed their allegiance to the King.
Lists were then drawn up mentioning the name and address of each subscriber as well as the amount they he was willing to offer. Each subscriber agreed to pay one-sixth of the total in cash upon acceptance of the request, and the remainder within the following five months.64
The name of Jan Vleminck , Lord of Wijnegem, appears on this list as residing ‘at the house of Schetz’. Vleminck was willing to contribute no less than 50,000 pounds65, a substantial sum for the time.
The petition was presented around October 27, 1566, by eleven delegates of the General Council to the Magistracy of Antwerp and the Count of Hoogstraten, with the request to forward it to the regent Margaret of Parma. The petition was then sent to Brussels for transmission to Philip II, who resided in Spain. However, the regent gave no reply.«
A year later, with the arrival of the bloodthirsty Duke of Alba in the Burgundian Netherlands in 1567, rampant intolerance was replaced by violent persecution of those who criticized the Catholic faith.
Anthonis van Stralen, the masthead of De Violieren, and as we have seen, one of the main organizers of the Antwerp Landjuweel, and a personal friend of William the Silent, went into exile in Germany. But on September 9, on the orders of the Duke of Alva, he got intercepted by Count Lodron between Antwerp and Lier. On September 25 he was transferred to the Brussels Treurenberg prison. In February 1568, he was transferred to Vilvoorde Castle to appear before the new Council of Troubles.

After being tortured, his property was confiscated, and he was sentenced to death by the sword. The sentence was carried out at Vilvoorde Castle on September 24, 1568. 66
This decision sparked great indignation in Antwerp. Many important merchants and citizens left the city permanently.
The plays of the Antwerp Landjuweel of 1561, including those by Willem Van Haecht, which exuded the spirit of Erasmus, were banned. Their performance on 21 June 1565, which was well received by the public, is said to have made the clergy grind their teeth, according to Godevaert van Haecht, a close relative of the author.
Van Haecht fled to Aachen, and then to the northern Burgundian Low Countries. His poem Hoe salich zijn die landen, written for De Violieren, was set to music by Jacob Florius and was included in the Geuzenliedboek, a collection of songs by those who revolted against Spanish rule in the Burgundian Low Countries.
Then broke out the Spanish Fury, a number of violent sackings of cities (Mechelen, Antwerp, Naarden, etc.) of the Burgundian Low Countries. The main cause was Philip II’s delay in paying soldiers and mercenaries. Spain had just declared bankruptcy. The bankers refused to carry out the transactions demanded of them by the King of Spain until they had found a compromise. For example, the transfer of troops’ wages from Spain could not be carried out by bill of exchange (the 16th century equivalent of a postal order). The Spanish government therefore had to transfer the real money by sea – a much more costly, slow and perilous operation. Unfortunately for Philip, 400,000 florins intended to pay the troops were seized by the English government of Elizabeth I when ships containing the florins were sheltered from a storm in English ports. 67
The most notorious Spanish Fury was the three-day long sack and burning of Antwerp in November 1576. At least 7,000 lives and a great deal of property were lost. The deaths were assessed at 17,000 by an English writer who was a witness.

Soon after, under the leadership of the great Erasmian William the Silent, supported by the Chambers of Rhetoric, the entire nation rose up against oppression and in favor of a Republic.
The Plakkaat van Verlatinghe (translated as the Act of Abjuration), signed on July 26, 1581, is considered the « declaration of independence » of many of the provinces of the Low Countries who considered that the King had betrayed his obligations towards his own people.
It was written by the Antwerp lawmaker and Registrar Jan van Asseliers (1530-1587), a close friend of Melchior Schetz and other key organizers of the Antwerp 1561 Landjuweel. 68 It was printed in Leyden by Charles Silvius, the son of Willem Silvius (1521-1580) 69 , the Antwerp humanist that printed and published the full proceedings of the same Landjuweel. 70
It was only after 80 years of war (1568-1648), at the Treaty of Westphalia, that the Republic of the Netherlands was recognized, leaving the south under Habsburg control.
Educated citizens went into exile. Between 150,000 and 200,000 refugees settled in the United Provinces and Germany. Cities such as Frankfurt, Hamburg, London and Amsterdam owed their prosperity to the arrival of refugees from the Southern Low Countries. After 1581, the Spanish authorities made no attempt to prevent these departures, which were in line with their desire to empty the country of its Protestant inhabitants. 71
Selected biography
(chronological order)
- CLOUGH, Richard, Brief over het Landjuweel van 1561, DBNL;
- SILVIUS, Willem, Spelen van sinne vol scoone moralisacien uutleggingen ende bediedenissen op alle loeflijcke consten … Ghespeelt … binnen der stadt van Andtwerpen op dLant-juweel … den derden dach augusti … M.D.LXI., Erfgoedbibliotheek Hendrik Conscience, Antwerpen, 1562;
- CAPPELLE, Johannes Pieter van, Anthonis van Stralen. National Library of the Netherlands (original from the University of Amsterdam), 1827;
- DE BAECKER, Louis, Les Flamands de France, Messager des sciences historiques et archives des arts de Belgique, Gand, Vanderhaeghen, 1850;
- GRAPHEUS, Abraham, STRALEN, Anthonis van, EVEN, Edward van, Het Landjuweel van Antwerpen in 1561, Eene verhandeling Over Dezen Beroemden Wedstrijd Tusschen De Rederijkerskamers van Braband, Bewerkt naar Eventijdige Oorkonden En Versierd met 35 platen, naar tekeningen van Frans Floris en andere meesters, CJ Fontayn, Leuven, 1861;
- SCHILLER, Friedrich, Histoire de la révolte qui détacha les Pays-Bas de la domination espagnole ; traduction française, par Adolphe Regnier, Hachette, 1883;
- CLAES, Henri, Het Landjuweel van Antwerpen in 1561, De Vlaamsche Kunstbode, 1890;
- ROOSES, Max, De feesten van het Landjuweel in 1892, De Vlaamse School, Nieuwe Reeks, jaargang 5, 1892;
- COSEMANS, Dr. A. , Antoon Van Stralen, Burgemeester van Antwerpen; Commissaris der Staten-Generaal bij den aanvang der regeering van Philips II (1521-1568), Verslagen en mededelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Taal- en Letterkunde, 1933;
- RANKE, Bert, Rederijkers in de Branding , Uitgeverij AJG Strengholt, Amsterdam, 1942;
- STEENBERGEN, Dr. G. Jo, Het Landjuweel van de rederijkers, Davidsfonds, Leuven, 1950;
- MULS, Josef, Erasmus en Quinten Matsijs, Standaard Boekhandel, 1953;
- GELDER, Dr. H. A. Enno van, Erasmus, schilders en rederijkers, P. Noordhoff N.V., Groningen, 1959;
- ISRAEL, N., De Liggeren en andere historische archieven der Antwerpsche Sint Lucasgilde, Amsterdam, 1961;
- KRUYSKAMP, Dr. C. , Het Antwerpse Landjuweel van 1561, De Nederlandse Boekhandel, Antwerpen, 1962;
- DEGROOTE, Dr. Gilbert, In Erasmus’ Lichtkring, Koninklijke Nederlandse Maatschappij, 1962;
- DEGROOTE, Dr. Gilbert, ‘Zotheid’ bij Erasmus en rederijkers, Dietse Warande en Belfort, 1974;
- VOET, Léon, De gouden eeuw van Antwerpen, Mercatorfonds, Antwerp, 1976;
- GIBSON, Walter S. , Artists and Rederijkers in the Age of Bruegel, The Art Bulletin, 63/3, 1981;
- DERVILLE, Alain, L’alphabétisation du peuple à la fin du Moyen Age, La Revue du Nord, 1984;
- ISACKER, Karel van, UYTEVEN, Raymond van, Antwerpen, twaalf eeuwen geschiedenis en culture, Mercatorfonds, Mercatorfonds, Antwerpen, 1986;
- GODIN, André. Érasme et son banquier. In: Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, tome 34 N°4, pp. 529-552, Octobre-décembre 1987;
- COIGNEAU, Dirk, COCKX-INDESTEGE, Elly, WATERSCHOOT, Werner, DE SCHEPPER, Marcus, PECKSTADT, Ann, WATTEEUW, Lieve, Uyt Ionsten Versaemt, Het Landjuweel van 1561 te Antwerpen, Bibliothèque royale Albert Ier, Bruxelles, 1994 ;
- HÜSKEN, Wim, ‘Elck om het costelycxte’: het Antwerps Landjuweel van 1561, Queeste, 1995;
- STOUTEN, Hanna, GOEDGEBUURE, Jaap, VERBIJ-SCHILLINGS, Jeanne, Histoire de la littérature néerlandaise (Pays-Bas et Flandres), Fayard, Paris, 1999;
- VANDEN BRANDEN, Jean-Pierre, Erasme, sur les traces d’un humaniste, Editions Labor, Bruxelles, 2000.
- PLEIJ, Herman, Het gevleugelde woord. Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse literatuur 1400-1560, Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2007;
- PLEIJ, Herman, De eeuw van de zotheid. Over de nar als maatschappelijke houvast in de vroegmoderne tijd, Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2007;
- BRUAENE, Anne-Laure van, Om beters wille Rederijkerskamers en de stedelijke cultuur in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden (1400-1650), Amsterdam University Press, 2008;
- Open Universiteit Nederland, Orientatiecursus cultuurwetenschappen, Van Bourgondische Nederlanden tot Republiek, Deel 2, 2009;
- VANDOMMELE, Jeroen, Als in een spiegel, Vrede, kennis en gemeenschap op het Antwerpse Landjuweel van 1561, Uitgeverij Verloren, Hilversum, 2011;
- CHRISTMAN, Victoria, The Coverture of Widowhood: Heterodox Female Publishers in Antwerp, 1530-1580. The Sixteenth Century Journal, 2011;
- DIXHOORN, Arjan van, Monumentalizering van een festival. Het Antwerpse landjuweel van 1561 als historische gebeurtenis. Jaarboek de Fonteine (2011-2012), 15-42. ;
- PUTTEVILS, Jeroen, The Ascent of Merchants from the Southern Low Countries, From Antwerp to Europe 1480-1585, Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor in History, Faculty of Arts, History Department, University of Antwerp, 2012 ;
- REMCO, Sleiderink, De schandaleuze spelen van 1559 en de leden van De Corenbloem. Het socioprofessionele, literaire en religieuze profiel van de Brusselse rederijkerskamer, Belgian Review of Philology and History, volume 92, fascic. 3, 2014. Modern languages and literatures, pp. 847-875;
- MEGANCK, Tine Luk, Pieter Bruegel The Elder, Fall of the Rebel Angels, Art, Knowledge and Politics on the Eve of the Dutch Revolt, SilvanaEditoriale, Milano, 2014;
- LAMPO, Jan, Blog over literatuur, geschiedenis en Antwerpen;
- GOUKENS, Lode, Peeter Baltens, een “grafisch diplomaat” tijdens de troebelen (Antwerpen 1572-1584), VUB, 2018;
- NIJENHUIS, Andreas, Les Pays-Bas au prisme des Réformes (1500-1650), L’Europe en conflits, p. 101-136, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2019;
- BRUAENE, Anne-Laure van, A Counterfeit Community. Rederijkers, Festive Culture and Print in Renaissance Antwerp, Antwerp in the Renaissance, Brepols, 2020.
- SOLY, Hugo, Capital at Work in Antwerp’s Golden Age, Studies in European Urban History (SEUH)(1100-1800), Volume 55, Ghent University, Brepols, 2021;
- PYE, Mychael, Europe’s Babylon: The Rise and Fall of Antwerp’s Golden Age, Pegasus Books, 2021.
NOTES:
- Karel Vereycken, How Erasmus folly saved our civilization, Schiller Institute; ↩︎
- Literacy rates were above 15% in Venice and Florence. However, they were not 70% as claimed by Ross King in his book The Bookseller of Florence. King cites two separate sources. On Florentine literacy Robert Black’s article Literacy in Florence, 1427, in Peterson and Bornstein (eds), Florence and Beyond: Culture, Society and Politics in Renaissance Italy… as well as the first chapter of Black’s Education and Society in Florentine Tuscany (both of which cover the same material). For the general literacy estimate, King cites R. C. Allen, Progress and Poverty in Early Modern Europe, Economic History Review 56 (2003), p. 415. Here we find an urban literacy rate of 23% given, which is itself based centrally on the estimate for Venice in 1587 from Paul Grendler, Schooling in Renaissance Italy: Literacy and Learning, 1300-1600. King misleads the reader in the way he presents this data. He claims that seven in ten Florentine adults could read and write, but the basis for his number (Black) is exclusively addressing male literacy (specifically adult and able-bodied male heads of household). By contrast, King’s figure of less than 25% (for other european cities) is an estimate of male and female literacy combined. (The actual numbers given by Grendler are 33% male literacy and 12-13% female literacy.) One must note that Grendler’s numbers are based on his estimates of schooling. Specifically, in 1587 Venice recorded a profession of faith for every teacher (256 in total) in the Republic, which provide information about things like the number of students they taught. On this basis Grendler estimates the number of students in formal education at around 4625. (4595 boys and 30 girls, i.e. 26% and 0.2% of the respective populations.) Gendler adds to this figure that of informal schooling or tutoring, whose number is estimated on the assumption that the majority of nobles and citizens (9.4% of the population) would have either educated their daughters or sent them to a convent. (This appears to be the estimates of 2% informal tutoring and 3-4% boarding convents for girls are coming from, though these specific numbers aren’t spelled out in the text.) Finally there are also Schools of Christian Doctrine (functionally sunday school), for which, on the basis of numbers from other cities, Grendler estimates an enrolment of around 2000 boys and 3000 girls, out of which Grendler guestimates that maybe 1000 of each (i.e. 6% of boys and 7% of girls) would have achieved rudimentary literacy. So here is the basis for the 33% (male) and 12-13% (female) estimates. ↩︎
- Alain Derville, L’alphabétisation du peuple à la fin du Moyen Age, La Revue du Nord, 1984. ↩︎
- Alain Derville, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Hanna Stouten, Jaap Goedgebuure, Jeanne Verbij-Schillings, History of Dutch Literature (Netherlands and Flanders), Fayard, Paris, 1999. ↩︎
- İ. Semih Akçomak, Dinand Webbink, Bas ter Weel, Why Did the Netherlands Develop so Early? The Legacy of the Brethren of the Common Life, IZA DP No. 7167, Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), 2013; ↩︎
- Open Universiteit Nederland, Orientatiecursus cultuurwetenschappen, Van Bourgondische Nederlanden tot Republiek, Deel 2, 2009. ↩︎
- Mychael Pye, La Babylone d’Europe, Anvers, les années de gloire, Editions Nevetica, Brussels, 2024, p. 21. ↩︎
- Mychael Pye, Ibid, p. 33. ↩︎
- Cipolla, C., Literacy and Development in the West, Penguin Books: London, 1969, p. 47 ↩︎
- Michael Pye, Ibid., p. 105; ↩︎
- Parker, G., The Dutch Revolt, Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY., notes of Philip’s visit to the Low Countries in 1549, 1977, p. 21. ↩︎
- Michale Pye, Ibid., p. 124; ↩︎
- Leen Huet, quoted in Pieter Bruegel, la biographie, CFC Editions, Brussels, 2021, p. 55; ↩︎
- Jeroen Vandommele, Als in een spiegel, Vrede, kennis en gemeenschap op het Antwerpse Landjuweel van 1561, Uitgeverij Verloren, Hilversum, 2011. ↩︎
- Sleiderink Remco, De schandaleuze spelen van 1559 en de leden van De Corenbloem. Het socioprofessionele, literaire en religieuze profiel van de Brusselse rederijkerskamer, Belgian Review of Philology and History, volume 92, fascic. 3, 2014. Modern languages and literatures, pp. 847-875; ↩︎
- Jeroen Vandommele, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Jeroen Vandommele, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Jeroen Vandommele, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Herman Pleij, Het gevleugelde woord. Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse literatuur 1400-1560, Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2007. ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, How Jacques Cœur put an end to the Hundred Years’ War, Artkarel.com, 2018; ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Jacob Fugger « The Rich », father of financial fascism, Artkarel.com, 2024; ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Fugger, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Fugger, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Erasmus Dream, the Leuven Three Language College, Artkarel, 2019; ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Quinten Matsys and Leonardo, the dawn of an age of laughter and creativity, Artkarel, 2024; ↩︎
- Andreas Nijenhuis, Les Pays-Bas au prisme des Réformes (1500-1650), L’Europe en conflits, p. 101-136, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2019. ↩︎
- Pierre-Yves Charles, Chercheur invité à l’Université Libre d’Amsterdam, La Réformation des Réfugiés, site internet de l’Eglise protestante unie de Belgique; ↩︎
- Pierre-Yves Charles, Op. cit. ; ↩︎
- Dr. Gilbert Degroote, In Erasmus’ Lichtkring, Koninklijke Nederlandse Maatschappij, 1962. ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, How Erasmus folly saved our civilization, Schiller Institute; ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Erasmus, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Quinten Matsys and Leonardo, the Dawn of an Age of Laughter and Creativity, Artkarel, 2024. ↩︎
- Dr. Gilbert Degroote, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Dr. Gilbert Degroote, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Dr. Gilbert Degroote, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Natacha Peeters, The painter’s apprentice in fifteenth and sixteenth century Antwerp. An analysis of the archival sources, Apprentissages, États et sociétés dans l’Europe moderne, Mélanges de l’Ecole française de Rome, 131-2, p. 221-227, 2019; ↩︎
- Karel Vereycken, Quinten Matsys and Leonardo, the dawn of an age of laughter and creativity, Artkarel, 2024; ↩︎
- N. Israel, De Liggeren en andere historische archieven der Antwerpsche Sint Lucasgilde, Amsterdam, 1961; ↩︎
- Tine Luk Meganck (Op. cit.) underscores that « Bruegel’s visual language is closely related to the poetic imaginary of the rhetoricians. Like the rhymesters, Bruegel often presented a serious message with a dash of mockery, as an inversion of the established order, as the world upside down. » ↩︎
- Leen Huet, Pieter Bruegel, la biographie, 2023; ↩︎
- André Godin. Érasme et son banquier. In: Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, tome 34 N°4, pp. 529-552, Octobre-décembre 1987. ↩︎
- Hugo Soly, Capital at Work in Antwerp’s Golden Age, Studies in European Urban History (SEUH)(1100-1800), Volume 55, Ghent University, Brepols, 2021. ↩︎
- Lode Goukens, Peeter Baltens, een “grafisch diplomaat” tijdens de troebelen (Antwerpen 1572-1584), VUB, 2018; ↩︎
- Lode Goukens, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Herman Pleij, Het gevleugelde woord. Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse literatuur 1400-1560, Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2007; ↩︎
- Dr. C. Kruyskamp, Het Antwerpse Landjuweel van 1561, De Nederlandse Boekhandel, Antwerpen, 1962. ↩︎
- Max Rooses, De feesten van het Landjuweel in 1892, De Vlaamse School, Nieuwe Reeks, jaargang 5, 1892; ↩︎
- Henri Claes, Het Landjuweel van Antwerpen in 1561, De Vlaamsche Kunstbode, 1890; ↩︎
- Arjan van Dixhoorn (Op. cit.), building on Vandommele, argues that the word « Art » (consten) refers here to the 7 liberal arts and mechanical arts and not the « higher » arts. That is unconvincing since the leitmotiv of the entire Landjuweel, as Vandommele himself keenly demonstrates, was that it was the harmony of poetry and music, a gift from heaven, that was the only viable basis for durable peace and concord. The Awakening of the Arts is in fact the theme of a painting by Frans Floris in 1560, an influential painter and an intellectual belonging to the Landjuweel organizers. Among Floris’s dormant arts are music, sculpture, cartography and other « higher » arts. ↩︎
- Abraham Grapheus, Anthonis van Stralen, Edward van Even, Het Landjuweel van Antwerpen in 1561, Eene verhandeling Over Dezen Beroemden Wedstrijd Tusschen De Rederijkerskamers van Braband, Bewerkt naar Eventijdige Oorkonden En Versierd met 35 platen, naar tekeningen van Frans Floris en andere meesters, CJ Fontayn, Leuven, 1861; ↩︎
- Abraham Grapheus, Anthonis van Stralen, Edward van Even, Op. cit.; ↩︎
- Richard Clough, Brief over het Landjuweel van 1561, DBNL; ↩︎
- Richard Clough, Op. cit.; ↩︎
- Alastair C. Duke, Dissident Identities in the Early Modern Low Countries, ed. Judith Pollmann and Andrew Spicer, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2009; ↩︎
- Victoria Christman, The Coverture of Widowhood: Heterodox Female Publishers in Antwerp, 1530-1580. The Sixteenth Century Journal, 2011; ↩︎
- Jeroen Vandommele, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Jeroen Vandommele, Op. cit. ↩︎
- Jeroen Vandommele, Op. cit. ↩︎
- The Festival of the Federation (Fête de la Fédération) was a celebration that occurred on the Champ de Mars on 14 July 1790, the first anniversary of the Storming of the Bastille. With over 300,000 people in attendance, the event honored the achievements of the French Revolution (1789-99) and the unity of the French people. The festival itself was a monumental accomplishment, as tens of thousands of French citizens volunteered to labor in the mud and rain to build an amphitheater on the Champ de Mars with a colossal Altar of the Fatherland at its center. The event marked the birth of French patriotism, at least in the sense that such a term is understood today, and was the first celebration of 14 July, France’s national holiday, which is still annually celebrated. At the same time, the festival was the high watermark of unity during the French Revolution itself, since afterward the revolutionaries devolved into factionalism and politics based on terror. ↩︎
- Louis de Baecker, Les Flamands de France, Messager des sciences historiques et archives des arts de Belgique, Gand, Vanderhaeghen, 1850, p. 181; ↩︎
- Tine Luk MEGANK, « Volkstelling te Bethlehem. Winter van een gouden tijdperk » in: Bruegels wintertaferelen. Historici en kunsthistorici in dialoog, eds. Tine Luk Meganck en Sabine van Sprang, 2018, p. 85-127; ↩︎
- R. CORRENS, H. RAU en M. VAN DE CRUYS, Het leven en de tijd van Jan Vleminck, heer van Wijnegem (1526-1568), uitg. Homunculus, Wijnegem 2014, p.124-126; ↩︎
- A.A. van Schelven, Het verzoekschrift der drie miljoen goudgulden (okt. 1566), in: Bulletin voor Geschiedenisonderricht, 6e reeks, deel 9, s.l., 1929, p. 1-42. ↩︎
- ARAB (Algemeen Rijksarchief van België), versch. Man., nr. 182, stukken uit de XVIe eeuw, deel 1, f° 184 ↩︎
- Johannes Pieter van Cappelle, Anthonis van Stralen. National Library of the Netherlands (original from the University of Amsterdam), 1827; ↩︎
- Le sac d’Anvers, connu comme la Furie Espagnole, Gifex.com ; ↩︎
- P. Génard, Jean van Asseliers, Biographie nationale de Belgique, Wikisource. ↩︎
- Portail Biblissima, Willem Silvius (1521-1580). ↩︎
- Willem Silvius, Spelen van sinne vol scoone moralisacien uutleggingen ende bediedenissen op alle loeflijcke consten … Ghespeelt … binnen der stadt van Andtwerpen op dLant-juweel … den derden dach augusti … M.D.LXI., Erfgoedbibliotheek Hendrik Conscience, Antwerpen, 1562; ↩︎
- Pierre-Yves Charles, Op. cit. ↩︎



















Posted by: Karel Vereycken | on décembre 30, 2025
AUDIO: Bruegel’s Mad Meg: we see her madness, but do we see ours ?
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